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±èÁ¤ÀÏÀ» Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁËÀÚ·Î ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿© ó¹úÇÒ ±Ù°Å°¡ ÀÖ´Ù. Çѵ¿´ë ¹ßÇ¥ ³í¹®.
*¾Æ·¡ ±ÛÀº Çѵ¿´ë ±¹Á¦¹ý·ü´ëÇпø(Law school)ÀÇ ºÏÇÑÀαǹװ³¹ß¹ýÇÐȸ(LANK: Legal Association for North Korean Human Rights and Development)°¡ 2005³â 11¿ù¿¡ °³ÃÖÇÑ Á¦1ȸ Workshop ¿¡¼­ ¹ßÇ¥µÈ ³í¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ¿¬±¸ÀÚ ¹× ÇÊÀÚ´Â ±è¹Ì¿µ(Çѵ¿´ë ±³¼ö), Â÷ÁöÀ±(¹Ì±¹º¯È£»ç)¾¾ÀÌ´Ù.
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Á¦¸ñ: ºÏÇÑ ´ë·®¾Æ»ç¿Í ÀαÇź¾Ð¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±¹Á¦¹ý»ó ¡®GENOCIDE¡¯ °³³äÀ¸·ÎÀÇ Á¢±ÙÀº °¡´ÉÇÑ°¡?


ºÏÇÑ¿¡¼­ÀÇ ´ë·®¾Æ»ç¿Í Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ÀÇ °¡È¤ÇàÀ§´Â Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁËÀÇ ¹æÁö¿Í º¸È£¿¡ °üÇÑ Çù¾à (Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾à)(1)»óÀÇ ¡°Á¦³ë»çÀ̵塱 ¹üÁ˸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÑ´Ù°í º»´Ù.

´ë·®¾Æ»ç ¹× ±â¾Æ À¯¹ß ÇàÀ§´Â Çù¾à Á¦ 2Á¶ (C)Ç×ÀÇ ¡°deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction,¡±¿¡ ÇØ´çµÇ°í, ºÏÇÑ Á¤ºÎ´Â ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î, ¹ÌÇÊÀû °íÀÇ¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ºÎÀÛÀ§¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ±â¾Æ¸¦ ¹æÄ¡Çß´Ù°í º¸¿©Áö´Âµ¥ ÀÌ´Â ¿ÜºÎÀÇ ¿øÁ¶¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÏ°í, ±â¾Æ»çŸ¦ ¹æÁöÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ¼ö´ÜÀÌ ÀÖ¾úÀ½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ±â¾Æ »óȲ¿¡ ´ëóÇÏÁö ¾Ê°í ±¹°í¸¦ ´Ù¸¥ ¿ëµµ·Î ³¶ºñÇß´ø »ç½Ç·Î µÞ¹Þħ µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.

Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Á¶¾à¿¡¼­ Á¤ÀÇÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Â ¸ðµç ÇàÀ§°¡ ºÏÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ Á¾±³Àû-Á¤Ä¡Àû Áý´ÜÀ» ¸»»ìÇÏ·Á´Â Àǵµ·Î Á¤ºÎ °ü¸®µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀÚÇàµÈ Á¤È²ÀÌ ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÏ°Ô Æ÷ÂøµÇ¾ú´Ù. ºÏÇÑ Á¤Ä¡ üÁ¦ÀÇ Æ¯¼öÇÑ ¼º°ÝÀº ±èÀϼº À¯ÀÏ»ç»óÀ» ±Ù°£À¸·Î ÇÏ´Â ãêïÙÁÖÀÇ¿¡ ¹ÙÅÁÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Â ¹Ù, Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ¼ö°¨µÈ »ç¶÷µéÀº Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Á¶¾à»ó º¸È£µÇ´Â Á¾±³ Áý´ÜÀ¸·Î °£ÁÖµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.

Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Á¶¾àÀº ¿¹»ó °¡´ÉÇÑ Àç¾Ó¿¡ ´ëºñÇØ ¾ÕÀ¸·Î °³Á¤µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÒ »çÇ×À» ³²°ÜµÎ°í ÀÖ´Ù. ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, º¸È£ Áý´Ü¿¡ Á¤Ä¡Àû Áý´ÜÀ» Æ÷ÇÔ½ÃÄÑ¾ß ÇÏ¸ç ¡°±â¾Æ¿¡ °üÇØ ¹ÌÇÊÀû °íÀÇ¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ Á÷¹«Å¸¸¡±À» ¶ÇÇÑ Æ÷ÇÔ½ÃÄÑ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í º»´Ù. ±â¾Æ¾ß¸»·Î °¡Àå ÀûÀº ºñ¿ëÀÌ µå´Â, °¡Àå ¼Õ½¬¿î ´ë·®»ì»ó¹«±â¶ó°í ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î, Á¤ºÎ°¡ ºÎÁÖÀÇÇÏ°Ô À̸¦ ¾ÇÈ­½ÃÄ×À» ¶§¿¡ ´Ü¼ø ÀÚ¿¬ÀçÇØ·Î °£ÁÖÇؼ­´Â ¾È µÈ´Ù. ±¹°¡°¡ ¹«°íÇÑ ½Ã¹ÎÀ» Á×À½À¸·Î ³»¸ó µ¥ ´ëÇÑ Ã¥ÀÓÀº ±¹Á¦¹ýÀûÀ¸·Î »ç¸éÀÇ ´ë»óÀÌ µÇ¾î¼­´Â ¾È µÈ´Ù.


I. °³¿ä

A. Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå °³³äÀÇ ¿ª»ç

Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å¶ó´Â ¸»Àº °í´ë ±×¸®½º¾î¿¡ åÞê¹ÀÌ ÀÖ´Â ¸»·Î¼­ ¡®Á¦³ë½º¡¯´Â ÀÎÁ¾ ¶Ç´Â ÀιÎ, ¡®»çÀ̵塯´Â »ìÀÎÀ» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù. À¯ÅÂÀÎ ¹ý·ü°¡ ¶óÆÄ¿¤ ·½Å² ¹Ú»ç°¡ 1943³â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Àú¼­¿¡¼­ ÀÌ ÇÕ¼º¾î¸¦ óÀ½À¸·Î »ç¿ëÇß´Ù.(2)

ÀÌ ´Ü¾î¸¦ ÁÖÁ¶Çϱâ Àü¿¡ ·½Å² ¹Ú»ç´Â ±¹Á¦¿¬¸Í¿¡ ¹ÎÁ·Àû Á¾±³Àû »çȸÁý´ÜÀû ´ë·® »ì»ó ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇØ »õ·Î¿î °³³äÀ» ¹ß¸íÇÒ Çʿ伺À» Á¦±âÇߴµ¥, ÀÏÂïÀÌ ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ ¹üÁË¿¡ °üÇÑ ÇÑ ±¹Á¦¹ýÀû ´ëÀÀÀÌ ÇÊ¿ä ºÒ°¡°áÇÔÀ» Ç¥¸íÇÑ °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×ÀÇ Á¦¾ÈÀº äÅõÇÁö ¾Ê¾Ò°í, ÀÌ·Î½á ³ªÄ¡¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ¾ß±âµÈ ÀηùÀÇ ´ëÀç³­À» ÇÇÇÒ ¼ö´ÜÀ» ¾òÁö ¸øÇß´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ ²ûÂïÇÑ ´ëÇлìÀÇ °æÇèÀ¸·Î ·½Å² ¹Ú»ç´Â Á» ´õ ±ä¿äÇÏ°Ô ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ °³³ä ÁÖÁ¶ÀÇ Çʿ伺À» Àý°¨Çϱ⿡ À̸£·¶°í, ÀÌ¿¡ Àû±ØÀûÀ¸·Î ±¹Á¦»çȸ¿¡ ·Îºñ¸¦ ½ÃÀÛÇßÀ¸¸ç °á±¹ ÇÕÀǸ¦ µµÃâÇÏ´Â µ¥ ¼º°øÇß´Ù.

1948³â ¸¶Ä§³» ±×ÀÇ ³ë·ÂÀº ¡®Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁËÀÇ ¿¹¹æ°ú ó¹ú¿¡ °üÇÑ Çù¾à(Àϸí Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾à)'À» À¯¿£À» ÅëÇØ Åº»ý½ÃÄ×´Ù. 2³â¿¡ °ÉÄ£ ±¹°¡µé°£ÀÇ ³íÀÇÀÇ °á°ú·Î Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË´Â Çù¾à Á¦ 2Àå¿¡ ÀÌ·¸°Ô Á¤ÀǵǾú´Ù.

Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

ÇöÀç ÀÌ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀº ¼¼°è 137°³±¹ÀÌ ºñÁØÇßÀ¸¸ç ¿©±â¿¡´Â ºÏÇѵµ Æ÷ÇԵǾî ÀÖ´Ù. (3)

B. Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀÇ ºñÆÇÀû ÀïÁ¡

1. Àǵµ´Â »óȲÀ» ÅëÇØ Ã߷еǾî¾ß ÇÑ´Ù

Çù¾à Á¦ 2Á¶¿¡¼­ ¡°Æı«ÀÇ Àǵµ¡±´Â Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁ˸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÏ´Â µ¥ ÇʼöÀûÀ¸·Î ±Ô¸íµÇ¾î¾ß ÇÒ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¸í±âµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ ÀǵµÀÇ ±Ô¸íÀº ¾î·Á¿î °ÍÀ¸·Î Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË·Î ÃßÁ¤µÊ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í È®Á¤¿¡ À̸£±â¿¡´Â ÀûÀÝÀº ³­°üÀÌ ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀº ÀÌ¿¡¼­ ºñ·ÔµÈ´Ù. ìÑÙ¤ÀÇ ¸êÀýÀÌ ±Ç·ÂÀÌ ÁýÁßµÈ Áß¾ÓÁ¤ºÎ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Ã¼°èÀûÀÌ°í Á¶Á÷È­µÈ ÅëÁ¦ »óȲ ¾Æ·¡ ¼öÇàµÉ ¶§, ±× ½ÇÇàÀÚ´Â Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÇÕ¹ýÀû ÀýÂ÷¿¡ µû¶ó ÀÌ·ç¾îÁö´Â Á¶Ä¡¿¡ ´ëÇØ À±¸®Àû °í¹Î ¾øÀÌ ¸í·ÉÀ» ¼öÇàÇÏ°Ô µÉ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ³ªÄ¡°¡ ¡°Ã¥»ó¾Õ¿¡ ¾ÊÀº »ìÀÎÀڵ顱À̶ó´Â º°ÄªÀ» ¾ò°Ô µÈ ±î´ßµµ ÀÌ°ÍÀÌ´Ù.

µû¶ó¼­ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË°¡ ¾ö°ÝÇÑ ¹üÀÇ(Ûóëò, mens rea)¸¦ ¿äÇÑ´Ù¸é ¼º°øÀûÀÎ ±â¼Ò¿¡ À̸£±â´Â ´ë´ÜÈ÷ ¾î·Á¿ï °ÍÀ̸ç, Ã¥ÀÓÀÌ ÀÖ´Â ¹üÁËÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇؼ­µµ ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÑ »ç¸éÀÌ ÀϾ°Ô µÉ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ³ô´Ù. ÇÐÀÚ¿¡ µû¶ó¼­´Â ü°èÀûÀÌ°í Á¶Á÷È­µÈ ´ë·®»ì»óÀÌ ÀϾ´Â »óȲ ±× ÀÚü¿¡¼­ Àǵµ¸¦ ã¾Æ³»¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇϱ⵵ ÇÑ´Ù. ¸¸ÀÏ Æ¯Á¤ Áý´ÜÀÌ Ã¼°èÀûÀÌ°í Á¶Á÷È­µÈ ¹æ½ÄÀ¸·Î Á¦°ÅµÈ´Ù¸é ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ »óȲ ÀÚü°¡ ½ÇÇàÀÚ ¶Ç´Â °ø¸ðÀÚµé »çÀÌ¿¡ Áý´ÜÀ» Æı«ÇÏ·Á´Â ¸ðÁ¾ÀÇ °ø¸ð¿Í ÇÕÀÇ°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´ø °ÍÀ» º¸¿©Áشٴ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­ Àǵµ´Â »óȲÁõ°Å¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÇÕ¸®ÀûÀ¸·Î Ãß·ÐµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.

2. Á¤Ä¡Áý´Üµµ º¸È£Áý´Ü¿¡ Æ÷ÇԵǾî¾ß ÇÑ´Ù

Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾à Á¦2ÀåÀº ±¹¹Î, ÀÎÁ¾, ¹ÎÁ·, Á¾±³ Áý´Ü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ º¸È£¿¡ ±× ´ë»óÀ» ÇÑÁ¤ÇÑ´Ù. ¿©·¯ ÇÐÀÚµéÀº ÀÌ Áý´Ü¿¡¼­ Á¤Ä¡Áý´ÜÀ» Á¦¿Ü½ÃŲ °Í¿¡ ´ëÇØ ºñÆÇÀ» °¡ÇÑ´Ù.

1981³â, ·¹¿À ÄíÆÛ¾¾´Â ÀÌ Çù¾àÀÇ °¡Àå ½É°¢ÇÑ Èì°á·Î¼­ ´ëºÎºÐ Á¤Ä¡Àû °¥µî¿¡¼­ ºñ·ÔµÈ ±¹¹Î ÀÎÁ¾ ¹ÎÁ· Á¾±³Áý´Ü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇؼ­ ¹Ù·Î ÀÌ Á¤Ä¡Áý´ÜÀ» »« »óȲ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÁöÀûÇß´Ù. Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾à ÃʾÈÀ» ÀÛ¼ºÇÒ ¶§ºÎÅÍ ÀÌ¹Ì Á¦±âµÈ ¹®Á¦ÀÌÁö¸¸ Á¤Ä¡Áý´ÜÀÇ ´ë·® »ì»óÀ» ÀÌ¹Ì ¹üÇÑ ¹Ù ÀÖ´Â ¼Ò·ÃÀÇ ¿Ï°­ÇÑ ¹Ý´ë·Î ÀÌ´Â ¹Þ¾Æµé¿©ÁöÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. Á¤Ä¡ Áý´ÜÀ» ¹èÁ¦ÇÑ °Í¿¡ ´ëÇØ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Á¶¾àÀÇ °¡Àå Å« Èì°á·Î ÁöÀûµÈ ÀÌ·¡ Àü¹®°¡ ¹× ÇÐÀÚµéÀº ²ÙÁØÈ÷ Á¤Ä¡ Áý´ÜÀ» Æ÷ÇÔ½ÃÄѼ­ ¼öÁ¤ÇÒ °ÍÀ» ÁÖÀåÇØ ¿Ô´Ù.

ºÏÇÑ¿¡ °üÇØ ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, ¸¸ÀÏ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀÌ ÀÌ´ë·Î ³²¾Æ ÀÖ´Ù¸é ÁÖ±ÇÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ »ç¸éÀ» Á¦±âÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â Æ´»õ¸¦ ºÏÇÑÀÇ ÅëÄ¡ÀÚ°¡ È¿°úÀûÀ¸·Î ÀÌ¿ëÇÏ°Ô µÉ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ºÏÇÑÀº ±èÀϼº À¯ÀÏ»ç»ó¿¡ ±â¹ÝÇÑ µ¶Æ¯ÇÑ ½ÅÁ¤Ã¼Á¦·Î¼­ Úã±èÀϼº Áý´ÜÀº ÅëÄ¡ÀÚ¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ­ °£´ÜÈ÷ ±¼º¹Çϰųª Á¦°ÅµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ·± ½ÄÀÇ ÅëÄ¡¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ÁöµµÀÚ´Â ±×ÀÇ ÇàÀ§°¡ ±¹Á¦¹ý»ó ÁֱDZ¹°¡·Î¼­ÀÇ ÇýÅÃÀ» ÇâÀ¯ÇÒ ÀÖ´Â ÀÖ´Â ±¹°¡ ¼ö¹ÝÀ¸·Î¼­ °øÀû ±â´ÉÀ» ¼öÇàÇß´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ³»¼¼¿ö Ã¥ÀÓÀ» ȸÇÇÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô µÈ´Ù. µû¶ó¼­ µ¶ÀçÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌ·± ¹æ½ÄÀÇ »ç¸éÀº °á±¹ ïáëù¿¡ ¹ÝÇÏ´Â ÀÏÀÏ °ÍÀÌ´Ù.

C. Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¼±·Ê ¹× ÆÇ·Ê

Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀº 20¼¼±â¿¡ ÁÖÁ¶µÈ °¡Ä¡ÀÖ´Â °³³äÀÌ´Ù. ¼¼°è Á¦2Â÷ ´ëÀü ÁßÀÇ ´ë·®ÇлìÀº Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±¹Á¦Àû °æ°¢½ÉÀ» ºÒ·¯ÀÏÀ¸Ä×´Ù. Á¦2Â÷ ´ëÀü ÁßÀÇ îúÛó¹®Á¦¸¦ ó¸®ÇÑ µ¶ÀÏ ´µ¸¥º£¸£Å© ÀçÆÇ¼Ò¿Í ÀϺ»ÀÇ µµÄì ÀçÆǼÒÀÇ ¼³¸³À» ÅëÇØ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵忡 ´ëÇÑ °³ÀΠåÀÓÀ̶ó´Â ¹®Á¦°¡ º»°ÝÀûÀ¸·Î Á¦±âµÇ¾ú´Ù. µ¡ºÙ¿© À̵é ÀçÆÇÀ» ÅëÇØ ¡°ÚãÀηû ¹üÁËÇàÀ§(crime against humanity)¡±¶ó´Â °³³äÀº »ç»ó óÀ½À¸·Î ÁÖÁ¶µÇ¾ú´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ ¹üÁËÇàÀ§·Î¼­ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵带 ±ÝÁöÇÏ´Â ±¹Á¦¹ýÀÇ ÄÚµåÈ­ÀÇ Çʿ伺¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±¹Á¦ »çȸÀÇ ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÑ ÄÁ¼¾¼­½º¸¦ °¡Á®¿À´Â µ¥ À̵é ÀçÆÇÀº Áß¿äÇÑ ±â¿©¸¦ Çß´Ù. °á±¹ ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ »ç°ÇµéÀº 1948³âÀÇ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀ» äÅÃÇÏ´Â »ç°ÇÀ» ¼º»ç½ÃÅ°±â¿¡ À̸£·¶°í ÀÌ Á¶¾àÀº 1951³â ¹ßÈ¿µÇ¾ú´Ù.

±×·¯³ª Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀº 1980³â´ë¿¡ À̸£±â±îÁö Á¦´ë·Î ±â´ÉÀ» Çß´Ù°í´Â º¼ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù. ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é ³ÃÀüÀÌ ³¡³¯ ÁîÀ½±îÁö ÀÌ Á¶¾àÀº Àáµé¾î ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ³ÃÀü±â°£Áß ÀÌ Á¶¾àÀº Áß±¹ÀÇ ¹®È­´ëÇõ¸íÀ̳ª įº¸µð¾ÆÀÇ Å³¸µÇʵ忡¼­ ÀϾ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇؼ­ ¾î¶² ¿¹¹æ ¶Ç´Â ó¹úÀÇ ±â´ÉÀ» Çس»Áö ¸øÇÑ ¼ÀÀÌ´Ù.

Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀÌ 1991³â 9¿ù »ý±â¸¦ µÇãÀº °ÍÀº À¯¿£¾ÈÀüº¸ÀåÀÌ»çȸ°¡ À¯°í½½¶óºñ¾Æ »çŸ¦ ÇØ°áÇϱâ À§ÇØ ÏÁÀ¯°í ±¹Á¦Àü¹üÀçÆǼÒ(ICTY)¸¦ ¼³¸³Çϸ鼭¿´´Ù. 1993³â 2¿ù 9ÀÏ, À¯¿£ÀÇ Àü¹® À§¿øȸ´Â À¯°í½½¶óºñ¾Æ ÀÎÁ¾ û¼ÒÇàÀ§°¡ ¡°ÚãÀηû¹üÁË¡±ÀÌÀÚ ¡°Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË¡±¶ó°í °á·ÐÀ» ³»·È°í, À¯¿£¾ÈÀüº¸ÀåÀÌ»çȸ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±¹Á¦Àü¹üÀçÆÇ¼Ò (4)¸¦ ¼³Ä¡ÇÒ °Í¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ÇÀÇÇß´Ù. 22ÀÏ, ¾ÈÀüº¸ÀåÀÌ»çȸ´Â ¹ýÁ¤ ¼³Ä¡¸¦ °áÁ¤ÇßÀ¸¸ç ÀÌ°ÍÀº ´µ¸¥º£¸£Å© ÀÌÈÄ ÃÖÃÊÀÇ ±¹Á¦Àü¹üÀçÆǼҿ¡ ÇØ´çµÈ´Ù. Àü ¼¼¸£ºñ¾Æ ÁöµµÀÚ ¹Ð·Î¼ÎºñÄ¡´Â ÀÌ ÀçÆǼҿ¡¼­ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË·Î ±â¼ÒµÇ¾ú´Ù.

¸£¿Ï´Ù ±¹Á¦Àü¹üÀçÆǼÒ(ICTR)´Â, Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË·Î À¯ÁË ÆÇ°áÀ» ¹ÞÀº »ç»ó ù »ç·Ê¸¦ ±â·ÏÇß´Ù. ¸£¿Ï´Ù¿¡¼­ 1994³â ÅõÄ¡Á· ¾à 80¸¸ ¸íÀÌ ¼® ´Þ µ¿¾È Áý´Ü»ìÇØ´çÇÏ´Â »çÅ°¡ ¹ú¾îÁ³´Ù. ÇÑ Áö¹æÀå°ü Àå Æú ¾ÆÄ«¿¹¼ö(Jean-Paul Akayese)°¡ ±â¼ÒµÇ¾ú°í, Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å·Î ÇüÀÌ È®Á¤µÇ±â¿¡ À̸£·¶´Ù. (5)

Àü Ä¥·¹ ´ëÅë·É ÇdzëüƮ¿Í À̶óÅ© ´ëÅë·É Èļ¼ÀÎ »ç°ÇÀº °è·ùµÅ ÀÖ´Â »óÅ·ΠÁ¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË°¡ ¡°±¹°¡Àû ÅëÄ¡ÇàÀ§·Î¼­ ÀÚÇàµÈ °æ¿ì¿¡µµ Àû¿ëµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´À³Ä¡±ÀÇ ¹®Á¦¸¦ Á¦±âÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Â »ç·ÊµéÀÌ´Ù.
µû¶ó¼­, ÀÌ ¹®Á¦´Â ´õ¿í ´Ù¸éÀûÀ¸·Î °ËÅäµÇ¾î¾ß ÇÒ »Ó ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¼±·Ê¿¡ ±¹ÇѵÇÁö ¾Ê´Â âÀÇÀûÀÎ Á¶¸íÀ» ¿äÇÑ´Ù°í ÇÏ°Ú´Ù.


II. ºÏÇÑÀÇ Æ¯¼ö¼º

A. Á¤Ä¡ ±¸Á¶: ÀÌÁúÀû °ø»êÁÖÀÇ ±¹°¡

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B. ºÏÇÑ Ã¼Á¦ÀÇ Á¾±³Àû Ư¼º

2005³â 11¿ù, ±¹Á¦Á¾±³ÀÚÀ¯¿¡ °üÇÑ ¹Ì±¹À§¿øȸ´Â ºÏÇÑ¿¡¼­ ÀϾ´Â »ç»ó ¾ç½É Á¾±³ ÀÚÀ¯ÀÇ ½É°¢ÇÑ À§¹Ý¿¡ °üÇÑ Á÷Á¢Áõ¾ð º¸°í¼­, ¡°Thank you Father, Kim Il Sung: Eyewitness Accounts of Severe Violations of Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion in North Korea¡±(6)¸¦ ¹ß°£Çß´Ù. ÀÌ º¸°í¼­´Â ±¸Ã¼Àû Áõ°Å¿Í ÇÔ²² È®¿¬ÇÑ ½ÅÁ¤ÁÖÀÇÀû Ư¡µé¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¼³¸íÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Ù. ³Î¸® ¾Ë·ÁÁø Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå »ç½ÇÁ¶»ç ¿¬±¸°¡ µ¥À̺ø ȣũ¾¾¿Í Çѵ¿´ë ±¹Á¦¹ý·ü´ëÇпøÀÇ ¿øÀçõ ±³¼ö, ±×¸®°í ¾Æ½Å´ëÇб³ÀÇ ±èº´·Î ±³¼ö°¡ °øµ¿À¸·Î 40¿©¸íÀÇ ³²ÇÑ °ÅÁÖ Å»ºÏÀÚ¸¦ ¸é¹ÐÇÏ°Ô ¸é´ãÇÏ¿© ºÏÇÑÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ ãêïÙüÁ¦¸¦ À¯ÁöÇϱâ À§ÇØ ÀιεéÀ» ¾î¶»°Ô ¾ï¾ÐÇÏ´ÂÁö ¹àÇû´Ù. ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀ¸·Î ¿¹¸¦ µéÀÚ¸é ´ÙÀ½°ú °°´Ù.(7)

ºÏÇѹý ¹× Á¾±³ÀÇ ÀÚÀ¯¸¦ Á¦ÇÑÇÏ´Â ÇàÀ§

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1. ºÏÇÑ ÁÖ¹ÎÀ̶ó¸é ´©±¸³ª ÚãÁ¾±³ ¼±Àü¼±µ¿¿¡ °­·ÂÇÏ°íµµ Áö¼ÓÀûÀ¸·Î ³ëÃâµÈ´Ù.
2. Á¾±³Àû ÀÚÀ¯´Â ¸í½ÃÀûÀ¸·Î ±ÝÁöµÅ ÀÖ°í, ºÏÇѳ»¿¡¼­ ´ç±¹¿¡¼­ Çã¶ôÇÑ Á¾±³Àû ÇàÀ§¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¾Æ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀº °ÅÀÇ ¾ø´Ù.
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4. ¸ðµÎ ±¹°¡ °ø½Ä À̵¥¿Ã·Î±âÀÎ ±èÀϼºÇõ¸í»ç»ó, °ð ÁÖü»ç»óÀÌ ºÏÇÑ¿¡¼­ Á¾±³Àû À̳äÀû »ç°í¿¡ À־ À¯ÀÏÇÏ°Ô °ø½ÄÀûÀ¸·Î ÀÎÁ¤µÇ´Â »ç»óü°è¶ó´Â »ý°¢À» Á¦±âÇß´Ù.

ÁÖü»ç»óÀÇ Á¦µµÈ­¿Í ±èÀϼº ʫͧ ¿ì»óÈ­

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III. ºÏÇÑ¿¡¼­ÀÇ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁËÀÇ Àû¿ë°¡´É¼º

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ºÏÇÑÀ» ¿¬±¸ÇØ¿Â ÀϺ» °ø»ê´ç ±â°üÁö ¾ÆÄ«ÇÏ´Ù(îåÐý)ÀÇ Àü Æò¾ç ƯÆÄ¿ø Çϱâ¿Í¶ó ·á¾¾´Â ÃÖ±Ù ºÏÇÑÀÇ ±â¾Æ»çÅ¿¡ °üÇÑ Ã¥À» ¹ßÇ¥Çߴµ¥, ºÏÇÑ Á¤ºÎ´Â ÚãÁ¤ºÎ ¼ºÇâÀÌ °­ÇÑ ÇÔ°æºÏµµ Áö¹æÀÇ Áֹε鿡 ´ëÇØ Æı«ÀÇ Àǵµ¸¦ °®°í ±â¾Æ¸¦ ¾ß±â½ÃÄ×´Ù°í ³»´Ùº¸°í ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ »ç½ÇµéÀ» »ìÆ캸°Ç´ë ºÏÇÑÀº ±â¾ÆÀÇ »óȲ¿¡¼­ ±èÀϼºÁÖÀǸ¦ °­È­½ÃÅ°±â À§ÇÑ °Ç¹° ÃàÁ¶ µî¿¡ µ·À» ¾²´Â µ¥½Å, ¾Æ»çÀÚµéÀ» ±¸Á¦ÇÏ´Â µ¥´Â Á¶Ä¡¸¦ ÃëÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀº °ÍÀº ¸í¹éÇÑ »ç½Ç·Î º¸ÀδÙ.

C. Case II: ºÏÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò

Á¤ºÎ°ü¸®¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ÀǵµÀû »ìÀΰú °í¹®ÀÌ, ¹ÝÁ¤ºÎÀû ÁֹεéÀ» °¡Á·°ú ÇÔ²² ¼ö¿ëÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ °­Á¦³«ÅÂ, °í¹®, °­Á¦³ëµ¿, °ø°³Ã³Çü µî ºñÀΰ£Àû °í¹®À¸·Î ÀÎÇØ ¾ß±âµÈ °æ¿ì Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁ˸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ³ª?

1. Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼ÒÀÇ ¹üÁËÇàÀ§(32)´Â Á¦³ë»çÀ̵åÀÇ ¸ðµç ïÒëù ¿¡ ÇØ´çµÈ´Ù

ºÏÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü ¼ö¿ë¼Ò´Â °­Á¦³ëµ¿ÃÌ, Áý´Ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò, °¨¿Á µîÀÇ °áÇÕµÈ Á¤Ä¡Àû ¾ï¾Ð ü°è´Ù. Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­´Â ½ÇÁö·Î Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾à¿¡¼­ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Â ¸ðµç Á¾·ùÀÇ ¹üÇàÀÌ ÀÚÇàµÅ ¿Ô´Ù. Àýµµ³ª Å»Ã⠹̼ö¸¸À¸·Îµµ °ø°³Ã³ÇüÀ» ´çÇϱ⵵ ÇÑ´Ù. ¸»·Î Ç¥ÇöÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °í¹®, ½É°¢ÇÑ ½ÅüÀû Á¤½ÅÀû À§ÇØ°¡ °¡ÇØÁ® ¿Ô´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, Á¶Á÷ÀûÀÎ ±â¾Æ¿Í ½ÅüÀû Æı«¸¦ ¾ß±â½ÃÅ°´Â ¿­¾ÇÇÑ º¸°Ç»óȲ µîÀÌ ÁöÀûµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.(33) µû¶ó¼­, Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­´Â ÁֹεéÀÌ ±â¾Æ¿Í Áúº´À¸·Î ½±°Ô Á׾´Ù. Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­´Â Èļ¼ ź»ýÀ» ±ÝÁöÇÑ´Ù´Â ¸í¸ñÀ¸·Î ³«Å°¡ °­Á¦µÈ´Ù.(34) °­Á¦ ¾Æµ¿ À̵¿µµ ÈçÈ÷ ÀϾ´Ù.

(a) Áý´Ü ±¸¼º¿øÀÇ »ìÀÎ

Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ Å»ÃâÀ» ½ÃµµÇϰųª ±ÔÀ²À» ¾î±ä °æ¿ì ´Ù¸¥ ¼ö°¨ÀÚµé ¾Õ¿¡¼­ °ø°³Ã³ÇüµÈ´Ù. ¿ä´öÀÇ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ 4³â°£ ¼ö°¨µÇ¾ú´ø ÀÌ¿µ±¹¾¾´Â Å»ÃâÀ» ½ÃµµÇÏ´Ù°¡ ÀâÈù »ç¶÷ÀÌ °ø°³Ã³ÇüµÇ´Â Àå¸éÀ» ¸ñ°ÝÇß´Ù°í Áõ¾ðÇß´Ù. ¿ä´ö¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ 5³â°£ ¼ö°¨µÇ¾ú´ø ±èÅÂÁø¾¾ÀÇ °æ¿ì ¿ª½Ã ¸ÔÀ» °ÍÀ» ÈÉÄ£ ÀÌÀ¯·Î 5¸íÀÇ ¼ö°¨ÀÚµéÀÌ ÃÑ»ìµÇ´Â °ÍÀ» ¸ñ°ÝÇß´Ù. Å»ÁÖ ¹Ì¼öÀÚ³ª Áß¿ä ±ÔÀ²ÀÇ À§¹ÝÀÚÀÇ °æ¿ì ¡°¼ö¿ë¼ÒÀÇ ÀÏÁ¤ÇÑ Áö¿ª¿¡ Àüü ¼ö°¨ÀÚµéÀ» ¸ð¾Æ³õ°í ±³¼öÇü¿¡ óÇϰųª ÃÑ»ìÇÑ´Ù.¡±(35)

(b) Áý´Ü ±¸¼º¿ø¿¡°Ô ½É°¢ÇÑ ½ÅüÀû Á¤½ÅÀû À§Çظ¦ ÇÑ °æ¿ì

¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ¼ö°¨µÈ ÀûÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´ø Áõ¾ðÀÚµéÀº °ÅÀÇ °í¹®ÀÌ ºÏÇÑÀÇ °¨¿Á°ú ±¸·ù ü°è¿¡ ¸¸¿¬µÅ ÀÖ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ´ÙÀ½Àº ÇÑ °æÇèÀÚÀÇ Áõ¾ðÀÌ´Ù.(36)¡°ÀÌ¿µ±¹¾¾´Â 1994³â Æò¾çÀÇ ±¹°¡º¸À§ºÎ¿Í ±¸·ùÀå¿¡¼­ ²Ä¦¾øÀÌ ¹«¸­À» ²Ý¾î¾É°í, ¹°°í¹®°ú ÃÑÀ¸·Î ¾ó±¼°ú Á¤°­À̸¦ ¾ò¾î¸Â´Â °í¹®À» ´çÇØ Ã»°¢¿¡ ¿µ±¸ÀûÀÎ ¼Õ»óÀ» ÀÔ¾ú°í, ¹°°ÇÀÌ µÎ °³¾¿ º¸À̸ç, Á¤°­ÀÌ»À´Â 2002³â ÈĹݱⰡ µÇ±â±îÁöµµ ¾Æ¹°Áö ¾Ê°í »óó°¡ ³ªÀÖ´Ù¡±°í ¸»Çß´Ù.

¾È¸íö¾¾´Â Àü Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò °æºñ´ë¿øÀ¸·Î À̸¥¹Ù °ü¸®¼Ò ¼¼ ±ºµ¥¿¡¼­ ±Ù¹«Çߴµ¥ ÀÌ °í¸³¹«¿øÇÑ ¾ï·ùÁö¿¡¼­ ¸¹Àº Á¤Ä¡¹üµéÀÌ Çдë·Î ÀÎÇÏ¿© Á׾°í Á¦22È£ °ü¸®¼Ò¿¡¼­´Â ºñ±³Àû ´ú Æø·ÂÀûÀ̾ú´ø °æºñ´ë¿øµé¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ­µµ ±¸Å¸¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ­ ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ Á׾´Â °ÍÀ» ¸ñ°ÝÇß´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. (37)

¡®¼û°ÜÁø ¼ö¿ë¼Ò The Hidden Gulag¡¯°¡ Á¦½ÃÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Â ¿©·¯ °ÇÀÇ Áõ¾ð¿¡ µû¸£¸é °í¹®°ú À§ÇØ·Î ÀÎÇÑ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË´Â Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ ÈçÈ÷ ÀÚÇàµÇ¾úÀ½À» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.

(c) »ýÈ°Á¶°Ç¿¡ ½É°¢ÇÏ°Ô À§Çظ¦ °¡ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº Àü¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î ¶Ç´Â ºÎºÐÀûÀ¸·Î ½ÅüÀû Æı«¸¦ ¾ß±â½ÃÅ°´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î »ç·áµÈ´Ù

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¹Ù¿¡ µû¸£¸é Àü ¼ö°¨ÀÚµéÀ̳ª °æºñ´ë¿øµéÀº ÀÌ°÷¿¡ µµÂøÇؼ­ Á˼öµéÀ» º¸ÀÚ ¸¶ÀÚ ¡°±×µéÀÌ ³Ê¹« ÀÛ°í, ³Ê¹« ¸»¶úÀ¸¸ç, Á¶·ÎÇÏ°í, ½ÅüÀû ±âÇü»óÅÂÀÎ °Í¿¡ ³î¶ú´Ù¡± ÇÑ´Ù. Á˼öµéÀº ¾Æ»ç¸¦ °Ü¿ì ¸éÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» Á¤µµÀÇ ½Ä·®¸¸ Á¦°ø¹Þ¾Ò´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù.(39) ¡°¼û°ÜÁø ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¡±´Â ¸ñ°Ý ´ç½Ã°¡ 1990³â´ëÀÇ ±Ø½ÉÇÑ ±â±Ù ÀÌÀüÀÇ ÀÏÀ̹ǷΠÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î ÃÖ¼ÒÇÊ¿ä·®¿¡ ¹Ì´ÞÇÏ´Â ½Ä·®À» Á¦°øÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î °­Á¶ÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Ù.(40)

(d) ¼ö¿ë¼Ò³»¿¡¼­ÀÇ Ãâ»êÀÇ °­Á¦ ±ÝÁö Á¶Ä¡

Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ Á˼öµéÀº ¾ÆÀ̸¦ °¡Áú ¼ö ¾ø°Ô µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù. ¼ö°¨ °æÇèÀÚµéÀÇ ¸î °¡Áö º¸°í¿¡ µû¸£¸é Á˼öµé°£ÀÇ ¼ºÇàÀ§´Â ±ÝÁöµÇ¾î ÀÖ°í, ¡°°£¼ö¿¡ ÀÇÇØ °­°£À» ´çÇÏ¿© ÀÓ½ÅÇÑ °æ¿ì´Â Á×À½À» ´çÇϱ⵵ ÇÑ´Ù°í ÇÑ´Ù.(41) ¡°¼û°ÜÁø ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¡±¿¡¼­´Â °­Á¦³«Å¹®Á¦¸¦ °­Á¶ÇÏ°í ÀÖ°í, ¡°Áß±¹¿¡¼­ °­Á¦¼ÛȯµÈ ¿©¼ºÁß¿¡ ÀÓ»êÇÑ ¿©¼ºµé¿¡ ´ëÇؼ­´Â ¹ÎÁ·Àû Á¤Ã¥Àû ¿äÀο¡ ÀÇÇؼ­¡±(42) ¹ÎÁ·Àû ¿µ¾Æ»ìÇØ°¡ °­Á¦µÈ´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ ºñÀΰ£Àû Á¶Ä¡µéÀº Á¶¼±¿©¼ºÀÌ ÇÑÁ· ³²¼º°ú °áÇÕÇßÀ» °¡´É¼º¿¡ ±âÃʸ¦ µÎ°í ÀÖ´Ù.(43) 8¸íÀÇ °¨¿Á °æÇèÀÚµéÀº ¡°°­Á¦³«ÅÂ¿Í ¹ÎÁ·Àû ¿µ¾Æ»ìÇØ¡±¸¦ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ Á÷Á¢ ¸ñ°ÝÇ߰ųª ¾Ë°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù°í Áõ¾ðÇß´Ù. (44)

(e) Áý´Ü°£ÀÇ ¾Æµ¿ÀÇ °­Á¦ À̵¿

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[English Version]

ISSUE 6: Whether the concept of ¡°genocide¡± is applicable to the mass starvation and atrocities that occurred in North Korea during the 1990¡¯s?


BRIEF ANSWER

The mass starvation in North Korea and atrocities in gulag constitute ¡°genocide¡± crime under the Geneva Convention on Prevention and Protection of Genocide (hereinafter ¡°Genocide Convention¡±) to which North Korea is a party.

Regarding mass starvation, creating famine falls within Article II(c), ¡°deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction,¡± and the North Korean government intentionally exacerbated the famine by reckless inaction, refusing aids and wasting resources during the famine despite the ability to prevent it.

In gulag, all kinds of acts defined in the Genocide Convention have been committed by the government officers with intent to destroy a religious-political group. Because of the unique characteristic of North Korean political system based on theocracy for Kim Il Sung unitary idea, the people who are confined in gulag can be regarded as a religious group that is protected under the Genocide Convention.

For the future, the Genocide Convention should be amended to prevent possible catastrophes. It should include political groups as protected groups, and lower the intent requirement to include ¡°reckless negligence of famine.¡± A famine crime, the cheapest and easiest mass destructive weapon, should not be regarded as a mere natural disaster when it is recklessly exacerbated by a government. A state must not be immune from liability for letting its citizen die.

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Conceptual Evolution of Genocide
The word ¡°genocide¡± originated from two ancient Greek words: ¡®genos¡¯ which means ¡®a human race¡¯ and ¡®cide¡¯ which means ¡®killing.¡¯ First time this word was used in 1943 by a Jewish lawyer, Dr. Raphael Lemkin (1900-1959), in his book Axis Rule In Occupied Europe.

Even before the word ¡®genocide¡¯ became a part of legal vocabulary, Dr. Lemkin recommended to the League of Nations to adopt a new concept of a crime of killings of ethnic, religious, or social groups of people with hatred or intent to destroy and make it punishable under Public International Law. However, his suggestion was rejected, and as a result, Nazi¡¯s catastrophe could not be stopped. After the chilling experience of the Holocaust, Dr. Lemkin became assured of the need of genocide to be recognized as a crime and started lobbying and publicizing to get consensus among the international community.

Finally, in 1948, his efforts gave birth to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (hereinafter ¡°Genocide Convention¡±) through the United Nations (hereinafter ¡°UN¡±). After two years of discussion among countries, the crime of genocide was defined in Article II as:

Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

The Genocide Convention has been ratified by one hundred and thirty seven countries including North Korea .


B. The Criticism of the Genocide Convention
2. The Intent should be inferred from circumstances.

As Article II of the Genocide Convention states, ¡°intent to destroy¡± must be established to constitute a crime of genocide. The difficulty of proving the intent element makes it more difficult to deem alleged mass killings as a genocide crime. When extermination of people is carried out under systematic and organized control of a central government, executors do not have to deal with ethical issues because they think of performing executions as of a legitimate process of any government. This is the reason why the Nazis were named ¡°murderers sitting in front of desks.¡±

Accordingly, strict requirement to prove a mens rea element in order to establish genocide results in less success for prosecutions and more immunity for liable criminals. Scholars have recommended finding intent from circumstances where systematic and organized massacre occurred. If a specific group is being eliminated in a systematic and organized way, conspiracy and consensus to destroy that group may be seen though surrounding circumstances. Therefore, it should be made possible to infer intent from circumstantial evidence.

2. Political groups should be included into the protected group
Article II of the Genocide Convention limits protection to national, racial, ethnic, and religious groups. Many scholars have criticized the exclusion of political groups from the protected groups under the Convention.

In 1981, Leo Kuper pointed out that the most serious defect in the Convention is that the convention did not include political groups because genocide toward national, racial, ethnic, and religious groups is most always stirred up by political conflicts. Although this issue was brought up since the drafting of the Genocide Convention, the suggestion was not accepted because of the strong objection of the Soviet Union that had committed mass killings of political groups. Since the exclusion of political groups has been known as the biggest defect of the Genocide Convention, various experts and scholars call to amend the Convention to include political groups.

Regarding North Korea, if the Genocide Convention remains unchanged, it is foreseeable that the head of the country would effectively use this loophole to raise the sovereign immunity. Since North Korea is a unique theocratic communist country based on Kim Il Sung ideology (Youilsasang), anti-Kim Il Sung groups are easily suppressed and executed by the government. Moreover, the leader can avoid responsibility for those executions by invoking his right to perform the official functions of a head of the state for the benefit of the state under International Law. Affording such immunity to the dictator goes against justice.

C. Precedents of Genocide
The Genocide Convention is a valuable document brought from the twentieth century. The massacres during World War II called the attention of the international community to genocide crimes. Through the establishment of Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals dealing with war criminals in World War II, the issue of ¡°individual responsibility for genocide¡± was developed. Additionally, the concept of a ¡°crime against humanity¡± was coined for the first time. Those tribunals contributed in bringing consensus among the international community for the necessity of the codification of International law prohibiting genocide as a crime. All those events led to the adoption of the Genocide Convention in 1948 which entered into force in 1951.

However, the Genocide Convention did not come into function almost until the end of the Cold War in 1980s. During the Cold War, the Convention could not prevent or punish any genocide crimes such as the Cultural Revolution in China or the Killing Fields case in Cambodia.

The Genocide Convention came to life in September 1991, when International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the UN Security Council to resolve the Yugoslavia incident. On the 9th of February in 1993, the UN Experts Committee concluded that Yugoslavia ethnic killings fell into ¡°crime against humanity¡± and ¡°genocide¡± category and asked the Security Council to establish ¡°an international criminal tribunal.¡± On the 22nd, the Security Council decided to establish a court to deal with those issues, and that was the first international criminal court after Nuremberg. The former Serbian leader, Slobodan Milosevic, was prosecuted for genocide in that tribunal.

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was the first court in history to give the actual conviction of the crime of genocide. In Rwanda, eighty million Tutsis were killed during a three month period in 1994. A local burgomaster, Jean-Paul Akayesu was prosecuted and found guilty of genocide.

The pending cases of the former Chilean leader Pinochet and the former Iraqi dictator Hussein have given rise to a question of whether genocide can apply without immunity to the acts committed by a leader of a state acting in the official capacity.

The North Korean issue is a combination of those precedents. Therefore, it should be dealt with more diversified and creative approaches and not be limited to the precedents.


II. THE DISTINCTIVENESS OF NORTH KOREA
A. Political System: The Deviated Communism
North Korea is distinct from other Communist countries. In 1945, the Cold War divided Korea into the North and the South. For several years, the North Korean regime operated under control of Soviet Union and China. However, after the Korean War in 1950 and the death of Stalin in 1953, North Korea started to develop a unique regime. Finally, since 1970, North Korea strengthened its unitary ideology system (Yuilsasang system) and evolved into a totally different regime from other communist countries.

Ju-Che and Yuil ideology or Kim Il Sung ideology and veneration are distinctive characteristics of the North Korean regime. Kim Il Sung, as a political leader, is worshipped as the absolute god. North Korean regime looks more like a ¡®theocracy¡¯ than anything else. The Ten Great Principles of The Unitary Ideology System (Yuilsasang Ten Commandments), written in 1974, is the de facto Constitution regulating North Korean people. Moreover, the amended Constitution is called the ¡°Kim Il Sung Constitution.¡±

North Korea has kept its clandestine and closed system even when China has opened its market to the world, Eastern European countries collapsed, and the Soviet Union was disunited. As a result, in 1990, North Korea faced serious famine, and hundreds of thousands of people defected from North Korea. At the same time, North Korea still commits human rights violations and public executions.

For the foregoing reasons, North Korea is distinguished from other typical Communist countries. Because of those distinctive traits, a multifaceted and more creative approach is needed to understand North Korean human rights issues.

B. The Unique Religious Characteristic of North Korean regime
In November 2005, the U.S. Committee on International Religious Freedom published ¡°Thank you Father, Kim Il Sung: Eyewitness Accounts of Severe Violations of Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion in North Korea.¡± It explains the distinctive theocratic characteristics of the North Korean regime by presenting concrete evidence. Well-known genocide researcher David Hawk, Professor Jae Chun Won, Handong International Law School students, and Professor Byung Lo Kim of Asin University conducted interviews of forty former North Korean citizens and found out how North Korea suppresses people in order to maintain its theocratic regime. The findings are:
North Korean Law and Practice Restricting Freedom of Religion
• North Korean authorities assert to the UN that there are no limitations on practice of religion in the country. However, Article 68 of the North Korean Constitution includes elements that are interpreted and applied as limitations on practice of religion. Arbitrary application of those constitutional provisions has lead to violations of internationally recognized standards of freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief.

• Religious freedom is also limited through constitutional provisions requiring approval for all ¡°construction of religious buildings and holding of religious ceremonies.¡± Requirements for approval of all religious ceremonies restrict freedom to manifest religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching, as expressed in Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

• Everyone who was interviewed for this study claimed that there are four mutually reinforcing reasons for the lack of religious freedom:

1. While residing in North Korea, all had been exposed to intensive and continuous anti-religious propaganda;
2. Religious activity was explicitly banned and none knew of any authorized religious activity inside North Korea;
3. All had heard about, or personally witnessed, cases of severe persecution of persons caught for engaging in religious activity;
4. All presented the understanding that Juche, the official state ideology of Kim Il Sung Revolutionary Thought, was the only officially sanctioned system of religious or ideological thought in North Korea.

Institutionalization of Juche Ideology and Veneration of the Kim Family
• North Korean propaganda continually portrays religion as ¡°opium.¡± That principle is indoctrinated into all sections of North Korean society through youth groups, political education sessions and neighborhood or workplace study groups where attendance is mandatory. Those sessions require active denunciation of religious beliefs and also include indoctrination on the principles of Juche, or ¡°Kimilsungism¡± as an exclusive religious ideology.

• All North Korean citizens are required to attend sessions at institutions known as the ¡°Kim Il Sung Revolutionary Idea Institutes,¡± or as ¡°Kim Il Sung Study Halls,¡± or as ¡°Kim Il Sung Research Rooms.¡± The institutions are described as venues for education and for veneration of the Kim family and their political philosophies. The interviewees described the experience as ¡°solemn,¡± ¡°divine,¡± and ¡°holier than the churches of South Korea.¡±

Penalties for Religious Activity
• Public executions of religious believers continue in North Korea. Several of the interviewees provided graphic and specific eye-witness testimonies of executions of individuals accused of engaging in religious activities. One of the interviewees testified that her brother was executed for involvement in such activities, but she had not seen the execution. Another interviewee had heard of executions of North Koreans involved in religious activities, and as a police official had been involved in two separate cases resulting in the arrest of eleven individuals accused of involvement with religious activities. Of the eleven cases of arrest, two of the arrested individuals were tortured to death during interrogation and the interviewee believed that the other nine had been executed.

• Ownership of a Bible or other religious materials is illegal with punishment ranging from imprisonment to execution. One other interviewee, while being imprisoned following repatriation to North Korea, met a fellow prisoner who was imprisoned because a Bible had been found in his home. Another interviewee reported that while being detained following repatriation from China he witnessed how six other detainees were sent to a prison camp for political prisoners after they confessed that they were ¡°followers of Jesus.¡± Another interviewee reported that he was personally beaten upon repatriation from China because, after repeated questioning, he admitted to having studied in a Korean-Chinese church.

• North Korean border guards take special measures to identify whether refugees repatriated from China had any contact with Korean-Chinese churches or with South Koreans.

Systematic Destruction of Religious Life in North Korea After 1945
• The Communist Party of North Korea has pursued a consistent policy to either destroy or co-opt religious practices:

1. Between 1945 and 1950 all religious leaders were either arrested or executed. A mass southern exodus of religious believers began.
2. The complete suppression of religious practices in North Korea was not achieved until the early 1960s. All religious practices that remained were classified to be the lowest strata of the songbun class system. This hereditary system categorizes all North Korean citizens into one of the 51 sub-categories of ¡°core,¡± ¡°wavering,¡± or ¡°hostile¡± groups. Those with a religious background were categorized into hostile classes 34, 35, 36, and 37. The songbun system resulted in the ¡°purge of 1958,¡± in which religious families from Pyongyang were forcibly relocated to industrial cities on the country¡¯s east coast. Many of those families were eventually sent to lifetime administrative detention within the North Korean system of forced labor camps for political prisoners.


III. THE APPLICABILITY OF GENOCIDE TO NORTH KOREA

A. The Applicability of the Genocide Convention
1. The scope of genocide
Acts of genocide are specifically defined in the Genocide Convention, and there is no controversy among scholars regarding the scope of genocide. It includes intentional killing, torture, sexual crimes, and imposition of conditions that threaten life. If one of those acts was committed against a particular group, it should be enough to establish the crime of genocide.

2. Establishment of the intent element
To constitute a crime of genocide, ¡°intent to destroy¡± must be proved. Although mens rea element is difficult to show, the intent may be successfully inferred through context or circumstances.
As stated before, requirement of a specific intent sometimes enables the perpetrators to escape liability. Since genocide is committed by governments, it is easy to conceal the true intent and to justify the actions. In 1947, when the International League for Rights of Man sued the Paraguay government for Guayaki Indian massacre, the Paraguay government could escape prosecution by stating that the killings were not intentional at all, but incidentally occurred in the process of constriction of public road and houses.
The intent element in genocide is significant because the element enables the international community to intervene and to prevent genocide even before it is committed, when the perpetrator intends to destroy a group of people. Unfortunately, there are no examples of genocide being prevented by intervention of the international community before it occurred.

3. The protected groups
While the Convention is a significant step of International Criminal Law, its practicability is often criticized because of its exclusion of political groups from the protected groups. The reasons of exclusion of political groups are ¡°(1) the instability of political groups compared to national, ethnic, racial, or religious groups into which people are generally born and which by their very nature are more enduring groups, and (2) the possibility that support for the treaty itself may be jeopardized in many states if political groups were included. As genocide is mostly committed by political regime to destroy another political group, consequently, the exclusion of political groups in the protected class significantly weaken applicability and prevention of genocide.

However, Article III and IV broadened its applicability by widening the definition of criminals and by eliminating defense of immunity. Article III criminalizes not only acts of an actual perpetrator, but also of ¡°an accomplice in any genocidal act or to conspire, attempt, or directly and publicly incite others to commit any genocidal act.¡± Moreover, sovereign immunity defense cannot be raised under Article IV. It states, ¡°Persons committing genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.¡±

B. Case 1: Mass Starvation in North Korea:
Whether the North Korean regime caused famine with intent to destroy a group of people when it recklessly ignored significant evidence that its policy would lead to serious famine; whether North Korea purposefully worsened the famine by interfering with people's abilities to cope with shortages through a myriad of rights violations underscores the former?

1. Famine falls into the definition of genocide (c)
Famine is genocide under Article II(c) which states ¡°deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part.¡± A famine is ¡°a particularly virulent form of [starvation] causing widespread death.¡± Additionally, the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court defined 'the term 'conditions of life' may include, but is not necessarily restricted to, deliberate deprivation of resources indispensable for survival, such as food.' According to The official Commentary by Red Cross to the first Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions, ¡°It should be mentioned that an action aimed at causing starvation . . . could also be a crime of genocide.¡± Therefore, if famine is intentionally organized by a government, it can be considered to be genocide.

2. The government¡¯s intent to destroy can be inferred by circumstantial evidence
If the North Korean government did not take any measures to fight famine although it could have prevented it from worsening, the intent to destroy a group of people can be inferred.

The intent of genocide requires ¡°a specific intent¡± according to The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). The Court distinguished the intent element for genocide crime from the ordinary crime of murder, stating that it requires ¡°the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy a group in whole or in part.¡± Therefore, the standard of intent requires more than mere acknowledgement of the acts.
Specific intent is found only if the perpetrator committed the actus reus purposefully aiming to achieve those particular consequences. Contrary to the general law, however, where a legal relationship lies between people, inaction by a party that leads to victims¡¯ death could call for liability of murder. Even the Article II of the North Korean Constitution states that ¡°The DPRK is a revolutionary state which has inherited brilliant traditions formed during the glorious revolutionary struggle against the imperialist aggressors, in the struggle to achieve the liberation of the homeland and the freedom and well-being of the people.¡±
As stated, the North Korean government has a legal duty to protect and to provide for its people. Therefore, inaction of the North Korea establishes intent element of famine crime which falls within genocide.

According to defector Hwang Jang-Yeop who was the former Secretary of the Labor Party, the North Korean government spent eight billion and 90 million dollars on the renovation of ¡®Kumsusan Memorial¡¯ despite the severe famine which seized the whole country. With that money, the government could have purchased six-million-tons of corn. He pointed out that if Kim Jong-Il spent the money on food for people, he could have prevented more than one million civilians from dying from hunger. Furthermore, when Kim Jong Il attempted to buy two hundreds of Mercedes-Benz automobiles from Germany during the famine, the German corporation refused to sell the cars because they did not want to sell their cars to a human rights violator and did so as an economic sanction.

North Korea could have prevented the famine but took no action. Considering that ¡°famine is, in fact, so easy [to eradicate and] to prevent that it is amazing that they are allowed to occur at all,¡± the famine in North Korea can be deemed to be committed and organized by the fault of the regime. Despite the plentiful aid from the international community and organizations, North Korea failed to deal with the famine which resulted in more than two million deaths in hunger.

3. The government targeted to destroy a specific group of people in Hamkyungbukdo known as revolutionists who could be classified as religious group under North Korean regime

If North Korea intentionally suspended food supply to particular regions of revolutionists, the government would be liable for genocide. In North Korea, revolutionists and anti-Kim Il Sung are regarded religious groups rather than political groups. As stated before, North Korea regime has strong theocratic characteristics, and therefore, the opposition to the regime is not merely political in nature, but rather a heresy.

Under the Stalin¡¯s regime famine was intentionally aimed at particular regions. More than twenty million people were intentionally killed by the government, and a quarter of the people died due to famine in the Ukraine region only. Ukrainian nation group was known as strong objectors against the collective farm system, and they were classified as ¡°Ukrainian anti-Bolshevik and counterrevolutionary attitudes.¡± Stalinists intentionally cut food supply to Ukraine to achieve political objectives.

The Soviet government, as the first step, imposed unbearable grain quotas on Ukraine, then, let the people die while it exported grain to further its ¡°revolutionary¡± objectives. As historian Robert Conquest observes, these requisition levels ¡°were not merely excessive, but quite impossible¡± and, ¡°if enforced, could only lead to starvation of the Ukrainian peasantry.¡± When Ukrainians could not stand it any more and tried to get an ear of corns from collective farms, if caught, they were prosecuted under the ¡°Law on the Inviolability of Socialist Property¡± that criminalized anyone who attempted to steal or damage any property of the Soviet Union. Consequently, the death penalty or harsh prison terms were imposed.

Moreover, although the government knew of famine in Ukraine, when the international community offered humanitarian aid to Ukrainians, the Soviet Union refused the offer. ¡°In spite of pleas for assistance, and in spite of offers of help, Stalin allowed absolutely no food imports or food aid into the affected region.¡± Furthermore, the government prevented the free movement of Ukrainians to migrant to other regions for food.

It was an organized famine against Ukrainians; therefore, it is apparent genocide. According to a report by the US government, the specific intent of Stalin¡¯s government was supported by the evidence that when there was famine in regions other than Ukraine, the government adopted quick measure to eradicate the famine. Finally, in 1990, the Ukrainian community party officially admitted that the famine in Ukraine was in fact manipulated under instruction of the government with intent to destroy.

Likewise, in North Korea, it can be carefully inferred that famine in 1990s was created by the government with intent to exterminate a group of people in a particular region. According to the testimonies of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 'the authorities are deliberately depriving hundreds of thousands of truly needy Koreans of assistance.' Although NGOs attempted to distribute aid earmarked for famine victims, they had to watch helplessly as the government callously interfered.

Evidence of targeting a group is also found in a report by the World Food Program (WFP). WFP actively participated in aiding North Korea on a large scale, and indeed twenty-five-percent of North Koreans benefited from their help. Since WFP has a policy of ¡°no access, no food,¡± it established its local office and directly distributed food to North Koreans. The North Korean government, however, does not allow access to several regions because of national security reasons. Those areas are known as nuclear energy facilities, missile experimental facilities, and hidden gulags.

Japanese journalist, Hiragawa who was correspondent in North Korea, published his observations regarding famine in North Korea. He believed that North Korean government deliberately created the famine with intent to destroy a specific group of people in Hamkyungbukdo because people in Hankyungbukdo were known as revolutionists.

Examining the facts, it is clear that North Korea did not take any measures to help its people, instead spent money on strengthening its religion, Kim-Il-Sung-ism.


C. Case II: The hidden gulag in North Korea:
Whether the intentional killings and tortures committed by the government officials constitute genocide where the government imprisoned families of people in gulag and inflicted inhumane tortures such as involuntary abortion, tortures, enforced labor, and public executions?

1. The acts committed in gulags fall into all definitions of genocide
A gulag in North Korea is a system of repression of forced-labor colonies, camps, and prisons.
In the gulags, all kinds of acts defined in the Genocide Convention have been committed. People are publicly executed when they are caught stealing or attempting to escape. Serious bodily and mental harm is inflicted through indescribable tortures. Also, organized famine and absence of sanitation result in physical destruction . Therefore, it is common that people in gulags easily die of hunger or diseases. Forced abortion is imposed on women by reason of cleaning the generation. Forced transfer of children is common.

(a) Killings of members of the group.
Anyone who attempts to escape or violates the rules of the gulags is publicly executed in front of other prisoners. Lee, Young-Kuk who was imprisoned for four years testified that he saw public execution of a person who had been caught escaping. Kim, Tae-Jin who was imprisoned in Yo-Duk gulag for five years also testified that he was forced to watch five people shot to death for stealing food. Persons who try to escape or violate other major rules are ¡°publicly executed by hanging or firing squad in front of the assembled prisoners of that section of the camp.¡±

(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group
Almost all of the former-prisoners testified that the practice of torture permeates the North Korean detention system. These are testimonies from a former prisoner and a guard:
¡°LEE Young-Kuk testified that he was subjected to motionless-kneeling and water torture and facial and shin beatings with rifle butts at the Kuk-ga-bo-wi-bu interrogation/detention facility in Pyongyang in 1994, leaving permanent damage in one ear, double vision in one eye, and his shins still bruised and discolored as of late 2002 (Italics emphasized).

AHN Myong Chol, a former guard, reported that all three of the Kwan-li-so at which he worked had isolated detention facilities in which many prisoners died form mistreatment, and that at Kwan-li-so No.22 there were so many deaths by beatings from guards that the guards were told to be less violent (Italics emphasized).¡±

Numerous testimonies in ¡®The Hidden Gulag¡¯ reveal that the crime of genocide by torture and infliction of harm has been commonly practiced in gulags.

(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part

The conditions of gulags that are ¡°the combination of below-subsistence food rations and extremely hard labor¡± result in a large number of deaths. In ¡°The Hidden Gulag¡± it states, ¡°Former prisoners and former prison guards report that upon arrival, they were struck by the shortness, skinniness, premature aging, hunchbacks, and physical deformities of so many of the prisoner¡¦[p]risoners are provided only enough food to be kept perpetually on the verge of starvation.¡± ¡°The Hidden Gulag¡± emphasized that below-subsistence food conditions were deliberately inflicted by the North Korean government because they existed even decades before the famine in 1990s.

(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group
In gulags, prisoners are not allowed to have children. Several reports by the former prisoners show that sex between prisoners is not allowed, and there are ¡°killings of pregnant women who were raped or coerced into sex by prison guards.¡± ¡°The Hidden Gulag¡± focused on forced abortions and ethnic infanticide directed against ¡°women forcibly repatriated from China, because of the ethnic and policy components of those atrocities.¡± These inhumane measures were ¡°based on the possibility that the Korean women had been impregnated by Han Chinese men.¡± All of the eight former detainees testified that they ¡°witnessed or firsthand knowledge of forced abortions and ethnic infanticide¡± in the gulags.

(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group
Apparently, there is no freedom of movement. Children are also detained in gulags because of guilt-by-association principle. It is reasonably inferred that the imprisoned children were involuntarily transferred according to the order of the authorities.

2. The government has a specific intent to destroy the group of people who are against the regime, and the intent is established by killing of generations, ¡°Yeonjwaje¡± and forced abortion

The government¡¯s intent to destroy the group of people is clear enough. When the government imprisons people, it detains not only the person, but also three generations of that person¡¯s family. That is called ¡°Yeonjwaje – guilt by association – whereby the mother and father, sisters and brothers, children and sometimes grandchildren of the offending political prisoner are imprisoned in a three-generation practice.¡± The purpose of ¡°Yeonjwaje¡± is found in a 1972 statement by Kim Il Sung, ¡°Factionalists or enemies of class, whoever they are, their seed must be eliminated through three generations.¡±

Also, involuntary abortion occurs in gulag with intent to exterminate the pregnant woman¡¯s generation. According to Kang, Chul-Hwan¡¯s testimony, abortions are forced because it is believed that a delivery of the child will result in doubling ¡°counter-revolutionary elements.¡±

3. A religious group was targeted.
As stated before, North Korea is a religious regime. People who do not fit into Kim Il Sung¡¯s Ideology are sent to prisons. The people who are sent to prisons should be classified as political prisoners, but because of the theocratic characteristic of the North Korean regime, those political prisoners can be classified as a religious group.

V. CONCLUSION

The North Korean government caused the famine in North Korea and human rights violations in the gulags. Granting immunity for those crimes goes against justice in the light of international law. The famine in North Korea killed fifteen percent of its people. That should not be ignored. That crime must be punished as a crime of genocide under the International Criminal Law. However, the Genocide Convention has serious limitations. The Convention gives leeway to massacres that occurred in the context of political suppression.

We suggest that consensus in international community is needed to prevent and punish recklessly committed famine crimes in the International Criminal Law. When there is a specific intent and reckless inaction, the perpetrator must be prosecuted under the International Criminal Law. By dealing with North Korean issues, we should acknowledge defects of such conventions and develop an international mechanism for bringing justice where injustice remains.


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