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1st LANK WORKSHOP
North Korean Human Rights & International Law
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Issue 1
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1st LANK WORKSHOP
North Korean Human Rights &
International Law
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DPRK AND THE ICCPR AND ICESCR: Reconciling DPRK¡¯s membership to the ICCPR and the ICESCR with its human rights record
Legal Association for North Korean Human Rights
Handong International Law School
Doh Ah Kim, Ellie Eun, Eun Sang Hwang
2005/11/30
ISSUE:
Whether North Korea¡¯s membership to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) has brought improvements to North Korea¡¯s human rights situation.
BRIEF ANSWER:
The State reporting system utilized by the ICCPR and the ICESCR provides a forum for the United Nations (UN) to point out and confront North Korea with its human rights violations and for North Korea the opportunity to respond. However, as the enforcement and implementation of the ICCPR and ICESCR is based on the self evaluative and voluntary nature of the State reporting system, the ICCPR and ICESCR is only as effective as the good faith effort of the State party.
INTRODUCTION
How effective have the United Nations human rights treaty system been in improving human rights in the Democratic People¡¯s Republic of Korea (North Korea)? North Korea is a State party to four of the seven core human rights treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); yet, North Korea is regarded as one of the worst human rights violators in the world. How do we reconcile North Korea¡¯s membership to the International Covenants with its human rights record? This paper seeks to examine North Korea¡¯s human rights situation through its State party obligations under the ICCPR and the ICESCR. By examining North Korea¡¯s obligations under the ICCPR and the ICESCR, we analyze the State party reporting system utilized by the ICCPR and the ICESCR and then attempt to reconcile North Korea¡¯s State party obligations to its human rights record.
THE STATE REPORTING SYSTEM
The United Nations human rights treaty system is based on a State reporting system where a State party submits voluntary and self evaluative reports to their respective treaty body committee which is entrusted to monitor the implementation of the treaty. After a State party ratifies or accedes to the treaty, the State party is required to submit an initial report usually within one or two years after ratification or accession. After the initial first report, the State party is then required to submit periodic reports every four to five years as determined by the treaty body and in accordance with provisions in the treaty. Once a State party submits a report to the Committee, the Committee reviews the report and compiles a list of issues and questions for the State party to consider before the Committee meets with the State party delegation to formally deliberate on the submitted report. The State party may also submit written replies to the list of issues and questions before meeting with the Committee. The Committee then meets with the State party delegation to go over the report and the list of issues and questions. This dialogue between the Committee and the State party may last for several days. After the conclusion of the meeting, the Committee then issues its concluding observations, including recommendations and suggestions for further improvement in implementation.
The purpose of the State reporting system is fivefold; to conduct a self evaluative review of the implementation of the treaty, monitor the progress of implementation, identify problems and issues in implementation, assess ways for more effective implementation, and to make recommendations for more effective implementation. However, as the State reporting system lacks an enforcement mechanism and entrusts enforcement to the State party, the State reporting system and the implementation of the treaty is only as effective as the good faith effort of the State party. State parties may submit reports years after they are due, or ignore submission dates altogether. Reports may be superficial, or little consideration may be given to the concluding observations and recommendations of the Committee. Thus, State parties who wish to disregard the treaty and the treaty body may do so with impunity.
North Korea is a State party to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR, the core covenants that together with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights forms the International Bill of Human Rights. It acceded to the ICCPR in September of 1981 and submitted its initial report more than a year past its submission deadline. In August of 1997, 10 years past the due date for the submission of its second report, North Korea announced that it was withdrawing from the Covenant. The Human Rights Committee, the treaty body for the ICCPR, noted North Korea¡¯s intentions but refused to allow North Korea to withdraw because there was no provision within the Covenant that would allow a State party to withdraw. Unlike other typical treaties where there are provisions to allow State parties to withdraw from the treaty, the drafters of the Covenant ¡°deliberately intended to exclude the possibility of denunciation¡± because the rights enshrined belonged to the people and therefore could not be renounced. North Korea eventually submitted its second report in 1999, 12 years past its due date. North Korea has yet to submit its third report which was due almost two years ago. North Korea has similarly been overdue in its report submission to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It submitted the first portion of its initial report a year past submission deadline and the second portion of the initial report two years past the submission deadline. North Korea submitted its second report 10 overdue. Its third report is due in mid 2008.
ISSUES FROM THE STATE REPORTING SYSTEM
The State reporting process allows the Committee to identify and raise issues with the State party in areas where the domestic laws, or the implementation and enforcement of such laws, are inconsistent with the treaty. Of the many legal issues raised in the course of the State party reporting process, the Committee raised several key issues. We examine three issues with each issue presenting a particular perspective to North Korea¡¯s human rights situation. To examine human rights from a procedural law perspective, we look at North Korea¡¯s judiciary and the lack of judicial independence and impartiality as required under the ICCPR. To examine human rights violations from a substantive law perspective, we look at North Korea¡¯s Criminal Code and the offenses that carry the death penalty. Finally, to understand human rights from a socio-economic perspective, we examine the food distribution policies of North Korea and the right to food under the ICESCR.
1. Independent and Impartial Judiciary
Article 14(1) of the ICCPR guarantees the right ¡°to a fair and public hearing by a competent and independent and impartial tribunal¡±. However, North Korea¡¯s constitutional provisions are inconsistent with the idea of an independent and impartial judiciary as stated by Article 14(1) of the ICCPR. Under Article 162 of the North Korea¡¯s constitution, North Korea¡¯s highest court, the Central Court, is accountable to the Supreme People¡¯s Assembly (SPA) and to the Supreme People¡¯s Assembly Presidium (SPA Presidium) when the SPA is in recess. Judges are appointed by the SPA and the tenure of judges is limited to five years. The centralized power of the SPA and the SPA Presidium, the lack of checks and balances against such centralization, and the short tenure of judges severely limits the independence of the judiciary.
North Korea¡¯s constitutional provisions also limits the impartiality of the judiciary. Under Article 129 of North Korea¡¯s Criminal Code, judges can be criminally liable for handing down ¡°unjust judgments.¡± Facing with the threat of punishment for handing down ¡°unjust judgments¡±, judges are pressured to pass verdicts inline with the policies of the SPA. The ability of the judge to act impartially is further hindered by Article 157 which requires trials to be conducted with two ¡°people¡¯s assessors¡± chosen by the SPA or the local people¡¯s assembly. These ¡°people¡¯s assessors¡±, who receive ¡°special training in law to enable them to act objectively¡±, vote with the judge to pass verdicts in trials. The presence of the ¡°people¡¯s assessors¡± means that judges can always be outvoted. Instead of being an independent and impartial body, the judiciary under North Korea¡¯s constitutional provision is effectively dependant under the control of the SPA. The SPA has the full power to appoint, punish, and determine the tenure of judges. It also ensures that verdicts are passed in accordance with the wishes of the SPA through the presence of the ¡°people¡¯s assessors¡±. It is clear that these constitutional provisions that interfere with the independence and impartiality of the judiciary are wholly inadequate and contrary to what is required in Article 14(1) of the ICCPR.
2. The Death Penalty
Article 6(2) of the ICCPR states: ¡°sentence of death may be imposed only for the most serious crimes¡¦ This penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court.¡± In the Concluding Observations of the Committee in relation to North Korea¡¯s second State party report, the Committee noted positively the reduction of criminal offenses that held the death penalty from 33 to five offenses. However, the Committee expressed concern that four of the five offenses were essentially political offenses and were so broad in definition that it might be subject to ¡°essentially subjective criteria, and not be confined to ¡°the most serious crimes¡± only.¡± In the recently revised Criminal Code of 2004, the five offenses that carry the death penalty can be found under Article 59, 60, 62, 67, and 278. Only Article 278, which carries the death penalty for intentional murder, can be considered to be a non political offense. The remaining four Articles are essentially political offenses. Article 59 makes it an offense to conspire against the State, Article 60 makes it an offense to be involved in terrorism, Article 62 makes it an offense to be involved in anti-national treachery, and Article 67 makes it an offense to be involved in high treason. Though North Korea had revised the number of offenses that carried the death penalty from 33 to five, the broad and subjective nature of the revised Articles meant that the breadth of possible convictions still remained high. Thus, anyone who North Korea determined to be an enemy of the State could be convicted and executed under any one of the four offenses. Instead of reserving the death penalty for ¡°most serious crimes¡± as required by the Article 6(2) of the ICCPR, the political nature of the offenses coupled with trying such offenses under a judiciary effectively controlled by the SPA allows North Korea to apply the death penalty to punish those who have committed political crimes.
3. The Right to Food
Article 11(1) of the ICESCR provides ¡°the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food,¡¦ The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right¡±. In 1995, the United Nations World Food Program (WFP) began operations in North Korea to alleviate the emerging food crisis in North Korea. More than a decade later, the WFP has continued in the same work in alleviating North Korea¡¯s chronic and seemingly continuous food crisis. In the Concluding Observations made by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in December of 2003, the Committee expressed its concern about ¡°the consequences of the widespread famine suffered¡± and expressed its frustration that ¡°certain groups, particularly women, children and older persons have been more severely affected¡¦and have not received proper assistance in order to alleviate their plight.¡± Under the WFP¡¯s General Rule XII.1, the State receiving aid is to give ¡°full cooperation to enable authorized personnel of WFP to monitor operations, to ascertain their effects, and to carry out evaluations and other missions to assess the results and impact of the programs and projects.¡± Though the WFP has been in North Korea for over a decade it has been continually hampered by restrictions in distribution, oversight, and monitoring. As recently as October of 2004, the WFP demanded North Korea give them ¡°free and safe access to every part of the country.¡± In September of 2005, North Korea responded to the WFP¡¯s call for greater transparency by asking them to ¡°end humanitarian assistance by the end of the year.¡± With increased pledges of aid directly from China and South Korea, analyst have suggested that North Korea has found it more convenient to accept unmonitored aid directly from China and South Korea than to subject itself to the monitoring regime of the WFP.
Other aid agencies have faced similar problems in being restricted in their work. After beginning operations in the same year as the WFP, Medicins Sans Frontieres (MSF) abruptly pulled out of North Korea in 1998 citing similar frustrations in distribution and monitoring. In May 2, 2002, Sophie Delaunay, MSF regional coordinator for North Korea, gave testimony to the United States Congress House Committee on International Relations Subcommittee on East Asia and the Pacific regarding the ¡°disastrous humanitarian situation¡± in North Korea. North Korea¡¯s restrictions on aid organizations to ¡°independently assess humanitarian needs¡± meant that there was no way to verify that food aid was reaching the people it was meant for. In her testimony, Delaunay heavily criticized North Korea¡¯s discriminatory Public Distribution System (PDS) which distributed food aid based not on need, but on political trustworthiness. Instead of aid being distributed to those according to need, it had diverted and distributed to those based on political loyalty.
According to the ICESCR General Comment 12(section 18) of Article 11, ¡°discrimination in access to food, as well as to means of entitlement to its procurement, on the grounds of race, color, sex, language, age, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status with the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the equal enjoyment or exercise of economic, social and cultural rights constitutes a violation of the covenant.¡± In North Korea, citizens are classified into one of three classes: ¡°core,¡± ¡°wavering,¡± or ¡°hostile.¡± The government uses such classification to prioritize education, jobs, residence permits, and entitlement to food distributed through the PDS. According to statistics from the Institute of North Korea Studies, those in the top class receive daily rations of 700g of white rice, meat, vegetables, cigarettes, beer, and tofu while the lowest class may receive as little as 200-300g of food per day. It is clear that by entrusting the distribution of food aid to North Korea under the PDS system, North Korea has in turn used it as a tool of power, rewarding those loyal to the State while punishing those who have been disobedient. This willful discrimination in the distribution of food aid is irreconcilable to the mission of aid agencies and is a clear violation of the ICESCR right to food.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE STATE REPORTING SYSTEM
In his latest report to the General Assembly on the human rights situation in North Korea, Vitit Muntarbhorn, the Special Rapporteur assigned to assess the human rights situation in North Korea, opened his report by noting some of the constructive elements North Korea had taken in the area of human rights. In 2004, members of the Committee on the Rights of the Child were invited to visit the country; and in 2005, North Korea worked with the United Nations Children¡¯s Fund (UNICEF) to launch the first National Child Health Day. Muntarbhorn also positively noted the various changes and revisions of North Korean laws to better reflect human rights. In particular, he noted the revision of the Criminal Code to include the principle of ¡°nullum crimen sine lege (no crime without a law)¡±. Previously, Article 10 of the Criminal Code allowed punishment for an offence not provided for in the Code to analogous offences similar in nature and gravity. Thus, by abolishing Article 10 and incorporating the principle of nullum crimen sine lege into the Criminal Code, an individual could no longer be charged and punished retrospectively for an offense that did not exist at the time of being allegedly committed.
Though Muntarbhorn stresses that there are ¡°various discrepancies and transgressions – several of an egregious nature – in the implementation of human rights¡±, constructive elements of the report seems to suggest that there had been some tangible, albeit limited, effect of the State reporting system. However, it is not determinative whether the State reporting system is in a causal relationship with the positive changes in North Korea¡¯s human rights situation, or whether it is in just a casual relationship with the positive changes. A study of the State reporting system alone would be insufficient to determine the relationship. Other factors must be taken into consideration to examine the motivation behind the revisions and changes of North Korean law. As the State reporting system is based on the good faith reporting and evaluation of the State party, to understand these revisions and positive changes, the incentives for such changes must be analyzed from North Korea¡¯s perspective. Therefore, while it could be said that there has been some limited response to the issues raised from the State reporting system, it would be premature to conclude that the constructive elements is in direct response or relationship with the State reporting system.
While there have been some limited changes, it is quite clear that major human rights violations and challenges remain. The judiciary is unduly influenced by the SPA; though the number of offenses that carry the death penalty have been reduced, the offenses that carry the death penalty are constructed broadly and are political in nature; and the right of food for all citizens have been violated through the political and discriminatory distribution powers of the PDS. It this context it becomes hard to reconcile the constructive elements mentioned in the report to actual human rights conditions in North Korea. In his recommendation, Muntarbhorn calls on the North Korean government to ¡°[i]nvite the Special Rapporteur and other mechanisms, as appropriate, to visit the Democratic People¡¯s Republic of Korea to take stock of the human rights situation and recommend reforms¡±. Without further disclosure and openness from North Korea, we are greatly limited in examining the true implementation of human rights measures in North Korea. The voluntary nature of the State reporting system means that it becomes hard to distinguish between the cosmetic from the actual. Without further openness and cooperation from North Korea, the contents of North Korea¡¯s State reports cannot be reconciled or verified to actual conditions in North Korea.
CONCLUSION
Though North Korea is a State party to both the ICCPR and the ICESCR, it is clear through the issues raised from the State reporting system that there are serious human rights violations in North Korea. Of the many human rights violations raised by the committees, we analyzed three particular violations: the independence and impartiality of the judiciary, the death sentence, and the right to food. Though these issues are not comprehensive of all the issues raised in the State reporting system, it is still helpful to analyze these issues to understand human rights in North Korea under the framework of the ICCPR, ICESCR, and the State reporting system.
The State reporting system allows the UN to confront State parties with human rights violations, but the voluntary nature of the State reporting system and an almost non-existing enforcement mechanism means that State parties are often able to ignore its treaty obligations under the ICCPR and ICESCR with impunity. North Korea has always been late in submitting its reports, it has denied cooperation with the Special Rapporteur, and it holds the distinction of being the only State party which has tried to withdraw from the ICCPR. Though North Korea has made some changes, there is no way to verify whether these changes are real or cosmetic. Without greater openness and transparency from North Korea, there is no way to reconcile North Korea¡¯s membership to the ICCPR and the ICESCR to its human rights record.
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I. ºÏÇѰú À¯¿£ÀαDZԾà
À¯¿£ÀαDZԾà À¯¿£ÃÑȸäÅà ºÏÇѰ¡ÀÔ
ICCPR ½Ã¹Î Á¤Ä¡Àû ±Ç¸®¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦±Ô¾à(ÀÚÀ¯±Ç, B±Ô¾à) 12/16 /1965 9/14/1981
ICESCR °æÁ¦ »çȸ ¹®ÈÀû ±Ç¸®¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦±Ô¾à(»çȸ±Ç, A±Ô¾à) 12/16/1965 9/14/1981
ICERD ¸ðµç ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀÎÁ¾Â÷º° öÆó¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦±Ô¾à 12/21/1965 N/A
CAT °í¹® ¹× ±× ¹ÛÀÇ ÀÜȤÇÑ, ºñÀΰ£ÀûÀÎ ¶Ç´Â ±¼¿åÀûÀÎ ´ë¿ì³ª ó¹úÀÇ ¹æÁö¿¡ °üÇÑ Çù¾à 12/10/1984 N/A
CEDAW ¿©¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¸ðµç ÇüÅÂÀÇ Â÷º°Ã¶Æó¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦±Ô¾à 12/ 18 /1979 2/27/ 2001
CRC ¾Æµ¿ÀÇ ±Ç¸®¿¡ °üÇÑ Çù¾à 12/20/ 1989 9/21/1990
ICMWC ¸ðµç ÀÌÁֳ뵿ÀÚ¿Í ±× °¡Á·ÀÇ ±Ç¸®º¸È£¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦Çù¾à 12/18 1990 N/A
II. ±¹°¡ º¸°í üÁ¦
• À§¿øÈ¸
½Ã¹Î Á¤Ä¡Àû ±Ç¸®À§¿øÈ¸ (ÀÚÀ¯±ÇÀ§¿ø, HRC) : ICCPR ±¹°¡ º¸°í¼ °ËÅä ¾÷¹«
°æÁ¦ »çȸ ¹®ÈÀû ±Ç¸®À§¿øÈ¸ (»çȸ±ÇÀ§¿øÈ¸, CESCR) : ICESCR ±¹°¡ º¸°í¼ °ËÅä ¾÷¹«
• °¡ÀÔ±¹ º¸°í¼ Á¦Ãâ ¡æ À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ ÁúÀǼ ¡æ ´ç»ç±¹ÀÇ ´äº¯¡æ ´ç»ç±¹°ú À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ ´ëÈ ¡æ À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ ÃÖÁ¾ÀÇ°ß °ËÅä¼ ¡æ ÀÌÇà»óȲÁ¡°Ë (Ưº° º¸°í°ü)
• ICCPR : Ãʱ⠺¸°í¼- 1 ³â, Á¤±â º¸°í¼-¸Å4³â
ICESCR: Ãʱ⠺¸°í¼- 2 ³â, Á¤±â º¸°í¼-¸Å5³â
• ºÏÇÑ Á¤±â º¸°í¼
ºÏÇÑ º¸°í¼ Á¦Ã⿹Á¤ÀÏ Á¦ÃâÀÏ
ICCPR
Ãʱ⠺¸°í¼ 1982. 12 1984. 4
2Â÷ Á¤±âº¸°í¼ 1987. 10 2000. 5
3Â÷ Á¤±âº¸°í¼ 2004. 1 ----
ICESCR
Ãʱ⠺¸°í¼ (1) 1983. 9 1984. 12
Ãʱ⠺¸°í¼ (2) 1987. 9 1989. 1
2Â÷ Á¤±âº¸°í¼ 1992. 6 2002. 3
3Â÷ Á¤±â º¸°í¼ 2008. 6 ----
III ¹ýÀû ³íÀïÁ¡
1. µ¶¸³Àû, °øÆòÇÑ »ç¹ýºÎ
ICCPR Á¦14Á¶1Ç× : ¸ðµç »ç¶÷Àº ±×¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Çü»ç»óÀÇ ÁËÀÇ °áÁ¤ ¶Ç´Â ¹Î»ç»óÀÇ ±Ç¸® ¹× Àǹ«ÀÇ ´ÙÅù¿¡ °üÇÑ °áÁ¤À» À§ÇÏ¿© ¹ý·ü¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ¼³Ä¡µÈ ±ÇÇÑ ÀÖ´Â µ¶¸³ÀûÀÌ°í °øÆòÇÑ ¹ý¿ø¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ °øÁ¤ÇÑ °ø°³½É¸®¸¦ ¹ÞÀ» ±Ç¸®¸¦ °¡Áø´Ù.
ºÏÇÑ Çå¹ý Á¦162Á¶ : Áß¾ÓÀçÆÇ¼Ò´Â Àڱ⠻ç¾÷¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ÃÖ°íÀιÎȸÀÇ¿Í ±× ÈÞȸ Áß¿¡ ÃÖ°íÀιÎȸÀÇ »óÀÓÀ§¿øÈ¸ ¾Õ¿¡ Ã¥ÀÓÁø´Ù
ºÏÇÑÇå¹ý Á¦157Á¶ : ÀçÆÇÀº ÆÇ»ç 1¸í°ú ÀιÎÂü½É¿ø 2¸íÀ¸·Î ±¸¼ºµÈ ÀçÆÇ¼Ò°¡ ÇÑ´Ù. Ưº°ÇÑ °æ¿ì¿¡´Â ÆÇ»ç 3¸íÀ¸·Î ±¸¼ºÇÏ¿© ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù
2. »çÇüÁ¦µµ
ICCPRÁ¦ 6Á¶ 2Ç× :»çÇüÀ» ÆóÁöÇÏÁö ¾Æ´ÏÇϰí ÀÖ´Â ±¹°¡¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼ »çÇüÀº ¹üÁË ´ç½ÃÀÇ ÇöÇà¹ý¿¡ µû¶ó¼ ¶ÇÇÑ ÀÌ ±Ô¾àÀÇ ±ÔÁ¤°ú Áý´Ü»ìÇØÁËÀÇ ¹æÁö ¹× ó¹ú¿¡ °üÇÑ Çù¾à¿¡ ÀúÃ˵ÇÁö ¾Æ´ÏÇÏ´Â ¹ý·ü¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© °¡Àå ÁßÇÑ ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼¸¸ ¼±°íµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ Çü¹úÀº ±ÇÇÑ ÀÖ´Â ¹ý¿øÀÌ ³»¸° ÃÖÁ¾ÆÇ°á¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿©¼¸¸ ÁýÇàµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù
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Á¦62Á¶: Á¶±¹¹Ý¿ªÁË, Á¦67Á¶: ¹ÎÁ·¹Ý¿ªÁË.
3. ½Ä·®¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±âº»±Ç
ICESCR Á¦11 1Ç× :ÀÌ ±Ô¾àÀÇ ´ç»ç±¹Àº ¸ðµç »ç¶÷ÀÌ Àû´çÇÑ ½Ä·®, ÀǺ¹ ¹× ÁÖÅÃÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿© ÀÚ±âÀڽŰú °¡Á¤À» À§ÇÑ Àû´çÇÑ »ýȰ¼öÁØÀ» ´©¸± ±Ç¸®¿Í »ýȰÁ¶°ÇÀ» Áö¼ÓÀûÀ¸·Î °³¼±ÇÒ ±Ç¸®¸¦ °¡Áö´Â °ÍÀ» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÑ´Ù. ´ç»ç±¹Àº ±×·¯ÇÑ ÃëÁö¿¡¼ ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î µ¿ÀÇ¿¡ ÀÔ°¢ÇÑ ±¹Á¦Àû Çù·ÂÀÇ º»ÁúÀûÀÎ Á߿伺À» ÀÎÁ¤Çϰí, ±× ±Ç¸®ÀÇ ½ÇÇöÀ» È®º¸Çϱâ À§ÇÑ Àû´çÇÑ Á¶Ä¡¸¦ ÃëÇÑ´Ù.
• ¿øÁ¶±â±¸ : ¼¼°è½Ä·®°èȹ(WFP), ±¹°æ¾ø´Â ÀÌ»çȸ(MSF)
• ºÏÇÑÀÇ 3°èÃþ: ÇÙ½É, µ¿¿ä, Àû´ë
IV. ½Ã¹Î Á¤Ä¡Àû ±Ç¸®¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦±Ô¾à (ICCPR)°ú °æÁ¦ »çȸ ¹®ÈÀû ±Ç¸®¿¡ °üÇÑ ±¹Á¦±Ô¾à (ICESCR) Àαǰ³¼± ±â¿©¿©ºÎ
V. °á·Ð
1st LANK WORKSHOP
North Korean Human Rights & International Law
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Issue 3
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[English Version]
Whether the domestic laws of North Korea and the international conventions regarding women¡¯s rights are in compliance with reality?
BRIEF ANSWER
No. Taking the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) of which North Korea is a member state and North Korean domestic laws as the rules of law to apply to the facts provided by a North Korean defector journalist, we have concluded that the domestic laws and the CEDAW are not in compliance with reality. By examining the domestic laws which were enacted long before North Korea became a State Party to the Convention, it may seem that women¡¯s rights are very well protected by the state. However, as proven by the testimonies and articles written by North Korean defectors, we can see that there is a disparity between the Constitutions and the rules and orders. This contradiction creates even a greater disparity between the law and the reality.
INTRODUCTION
North Korea has acceded to four of the seven international conventions which are the barometers of human rights protection and promotion, one of which is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) . North Korea acceded to the Convention on February 27, 2001, but with reservations: (1) under article 2(f) which deals with modifying or abolishing existing laws, regulations, customs and practices constituting discrimination against women; (2) article 9(2) regarding the nationality of the children; and (3) article 29(1) which is on the appropriate procedure to file a suit in the International Court of Justice (ICJ). This means that North Korea agreed to implement the contents of the Convention except the three reserved articles. The issue of this paper is whether or not the domestic laws of North Korea and the international conventions regarding women¡¯s rights are in compliance with reality. The facts are referred to the articles written by Choi, Jin-I, a North Korean defector and columnist for the Daily NK, an online newspaper on North Korean issues. We have selected five areas of the CEDAW—laws and policies, trafficking, marriage, health care and employment—which are relevant to the situation that North Korea is currently facing.
DISCUSSION
[1] Laws and Policies on Women
The Article 2 of the CEDAW deals with issues pertaining to laws and policies on women.
We shall examine whether the North Korean Constitution and other policy measures satisfy the standards set forth in the provisions of this Article. North Korean laws regarding women are prescribed in the Constitution, Law on Sex Equality, Law on Laborers and Office Workers, Law on Creches, Law on Children¡¯s Health and Education, Family Law etc. The North Korean Constitution protects the status and rights of women in society, and specifies the methods to protect mothers and their children. Article 76 of the Constitution (modified on April 9, 1992 by the Supreme People¡¯s Assembly) reads:
¡°Women are accorded an equal social status and rights with men. The State shall afford special protection to mothers and children by providing maternity leave, reduced working hours for mothers with many children, a wide network of maternity hospitals, creches and kindergartens, and other measures. The State shall provide all conditions for women to play a full role in society.¡±
On July 30, 1946, the Law on Sex Equality was enacted for the purpose of eliminating the vestiges of Japanese imperialism and to encourage the participation of women in cultural, social and political arenas. This law also grants equal protection to women in all areas of life, including nation, economy, culture, society and politics. Women are given equal rights to marry and to divorce, to inherit estate and land. The Law on Sex Equality prohibits human rights violations against women, for example, polygamy and sex trafficking. The astonishing fact is that these laws were enacted 25 years before CEDAW was ratified in 1989.
However, what we need to look further into are the regulations and ordinances that contradict the legal protection that the Constitution and other legislative measures provide. From the facts provided in an article by Choi, Jin-I, ¡°Pyeong-Yang Women¡¯s Suffering Starts in Spring,¡± the government starts prohibiting women from wearing pants in the city of Pyeong-Yang in spring . From April to June, especially, when there is an urgent need for intensive work in farms, most people except those in emergent circumstances are appointed by the government to assist in farming. Despite the fact that people have to put on their working clothes when engaging in physical labor, the women in Pyeong-Yang are not permitted to wear working clothes while commuting to and from the workplace. The guards usually wait in front of subway entrances, bus stops, crossroads etc. where many people pass by, to seize those women wearing pants on their way back and forth, and the ones who are caught are fined or notified to their Party Organizations to be criticized in front of fellow employees.
The ¡°In-Min-Ban¡± system also provides rules and regulations that are contrary to the rights protected and promoted by the domestic laws of North Korea. ¡°In-Min-Ban¡± is a specific measure designed to survey and regulate the family lives, however, since there are not very many men who participate, the ones who end up suffering from this system are women. The ¡°In-Min-Ban¡± gatherings are usually held once a week, but when there are needs to prepare for national events or to pass on some new courses of action, the meetings can be held daily. The appointed women must be present whenever the leader of the ¡°In-Min-Ban¡± calls upon a meeting, and if they do not attend the meeting without justifiable reasons, they are notified to the Department of Defense and the Department of Security to be faced with punishment such as being banished from their residential area. During the meetings, women are commanded to clean their apartments and the surroundings, produce fertilizer for farming, prepare for wartime, etc, and these things are to be finished in their free time. Women must also report to the leaders all their visitors, including their friends and families. Many North Korean defectors testify that they go through emotional distress due to the surveillance and orders given by the ¡°In-Min-Ban¡± meetings.
In early 2000, special instructions were passed, that prohibited women from riding bicycles. The guards started capturing women who were riding bicycles and those who were caught were fined or their bikes were confiscated. These instructions were passed after a close friend of Kim, Jung-Il was hit by a truck while riding a bicycle. North Korean men that were interviewed after this incident stated that women riding bicycles is against the historical values of North Korea.
The rule regulating women wearing pants, the instructions given by the ¡°In-Min-Ban¡± to be followed, and the order prohibiting women from riding bicycles are examples of ¡°existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women¡± prescribed by the Article 2(f) of the CEDAW. North Korea, as previously mentioned, entered a reservation under this article, which is a contradictory conduct as they agreed to all the other articles pursuing with all means to take appropriate measures to embody the principle of the equality of men and women in their national constitutions and legislation, and adopting legislative (article 2(a)) and sanctions and so on to prohibit all discrimination against women (article 2(b)). In the country report submitted to the CEDAW in July 2005, North Korea alleged that the reason for the reservation was because Korea had different minimum ages for marriage and further claimed that this reservation would only be effective until they could provide due legislative amendments. When taking into account the laws and policies of North Korea, we could easily have a misconception that North Korea women¡¯s status is legally protected and that it is even better protected than in many other countries. The contradictions between the Constitution and other legislative measures are revealed from the facts aforementioned, and we could see that the women are oppressed by these unreasonable policies.
[2] Trafficking in Women
As it was mentioned earlier, Article 1 of the Sex Equality Law of North Korea, ¡°Women shall have equal rights with men in national, economic cultural, social and political lives.¡± In Article 7, abuses such as selling or trafficking and polygamy from deep rooted federal custom of the Middle Ages are prohibited. Any system of unlicensed or public prostitution including were barred. Anyone violates these regulation were to be punished.
According to the article ¡°No Sex-Slavery during the Famine Period for North Korean Women¡± written by Choi Jin-I, until the middle of 1980, people had valued their sense of chastity as very precious, and this notion never allowed them to even imagine selling sex. The famine in North Korea during the 1990¡¯s changed women¡¯s view on sex, as well as lifestyles, thoughts and views. Women began to resort to prostitution to provide for themselves and their families. The North Korean representative denied the existence of sex slavery in North Korea at the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights report submitted by the North Korean government in July 2001. He emphasized that for 50 years, they maintained the prohibition of sex slavery. He also said, ¡°The laws and policies are nothing to do with sex slavery in North Korea. We do not know what is going on the broader area, but sex slavery cannot exist in this country.¡±
It is true that sex slavery was barred from North Korea. However, the argument that sex slavery cannot exist because it is prohibited by law and policies is meritless. Approximately 75% of the people who cross the border to escape are women, and most of them live on selling their sex. These young women suffer from false imprisonment, rape, unwanted pregnancy and forced prostitution. While this kind of human rights violation is illegal under the Chinese standard, however, because these women have no legal status, there has been very little intervention from the Chinese authorities. Not only women in China, but also those in North Korea, sacrificed their dignity and rights under the international law. There are many hotels called ¡°waiting hotels¡± around railroads and these are similar to the unlicensed brothels in South Korea. The ¡°waiting hotels¡± were originally private houses to provide room and board for migrant travelers during the food crisis which became brothels as more North Korean women involved themselves in sex business.
[3] Women¡¯s Employment
The domestic laws of North Korea, in this case, also conform to the standards set out in the international law. The Socialist Labor Law, adopted in 1978 and modified in 1999, limits the working hours to six for those women with more than three children. The Law also recommends establishing institutions to help promote the social participation of women, such as creches and kindergartens. It regulates the health facilities for working women, protects the pregnant, and provides specific guidelines for prenatal and postnatal maternity leave.
Article 11(1)(b) of the CEDAW provides that women and men have the equal rights of opportunities to employment. Conversely, the reality in North Korea is strictly ruled by the traditional patriarchy. All the occupations in North Korea have some kind of level tests which are tools to raise the wages of people who have passed them. Most of the people who pass these tests are men, and women are very obviously excluded from opportunities to receive higher wages even though they pass. In selecting the executive members, women are almost never granted opportunities, thus, men end up engaging most of the high wages and privileges from the government. As in the case involving the ¡°farming women,¡± most women are assigned to do physical labor or works that are regarded as lowly. These ¡°working women¡± have a positive effect on the statistics, as the numbers would indicate that the women have the same employment rate as the men do. However, this equality is merely nominal. When it comes to dismissals of personnel, women are the first to be disadvantaged, and discrimination against the divorced or the ones not yet married is even worse. Women are faced with disadvantage as soon as they get married, as they are forced to follow the men to wherever they reside, and are allowed to find employment only in the area. The Central Party rarely employs women, and its back door for the personnel is known to be prohibited for women.
Article 11(1)(c) protects women¡¯s right to employment, right to promotion and right to secure their employment. In North Korea, there is evidence which does not comply with this article provided in CEDAW. Girls who just graduated from middle school are forced to work in a farm as a group called ¡°Cheong-Nyeon-Bun-Jo¡± or are appointed to work in Pyeong-Yang to engage in physically challenging work. The ones who remain in Pyeong-Yang are usually ex-members of the ¡°Red Youth Guards,¡± and who are experienced in labor such as handling machine guns and building hospitals. On the basis of these ¡°special careers¡±, these girls are forced to engage in this kind of work for their entire lives as they do not have the right to choose their career nor can they freely quit their jobs. The ¡°Cheong-Nyeon-Bun-Jo¡± is a kind of national campaign to fill the number of shortages in faming and other areas, being used to exploit the labor of young women.
Article 11(2)(c) is one which encourages the provision of the necessary social services to support parents to combine family obligations with work responsibilities. The North Korean domestic law named ¡°Law on Children¡¯s Health and Education,¡± enacted on April 29, 1976, provides that the women should be liberated from the burden of raising children, and should contribute to the historical duties by participating in the establishment of socialistic state. It may seem that the laws which encourage building state-owned creches and kindergartens is protecting the rights to equal participation in society for the women. However, North Korean women in reality are in charge of not only house chores and child-raising, but also physical labors such as taking care of livestock and farming. As women are granted equal rights to labor and education, they are often required to do both their jobs and the house works. The ¡°equality¡± has become a burden for women as their labors are restricted mostly to simple office works, factory works and farming.
[4] Women¡¯s Healthcare
At this point, we shall examine how article 12 dealing with the health care benefits related to family planning, such as pregnancy, childbirth and post-natal health care is implemented in North Korean domestic laws and in reality. Article 59 of the Socialist Labor Law of North Korea emphasizes the importance of health care systems, providing:
¡°The state renders special attention to the women laborers. National institutions, enterprises, social associations are required to equip themselves with sufficient protective health care systems. Women should be exempted from hard physical labor or labor that is harmful to their health, and the pregnant or the ones with infants cannot be commanded to do labor at night.¡±
In the press interview held by DPRK, UNICEF and WFP in Beijing in 2005, it was reported that 1/3 of the pregnant women suffer malnutrition and anemia and 1/3 of children of less than 6 months of age are breast-fed. Based on the report in 2002, 99.9% of the pregnant women were registered for medical treatment before childbirth, and 94-99% of them were registered in the early period of pregnancy. Most of them gave birth in the medical institutions. 40% of pregnant women delivered their children in medical clinics and merely 1.2 % of women gave birth at home. There seem to be improvements in the quantity of medical treatment regarding pre-childbirth, however, the quality is known to be lowered after the economic crisis. About 18/100 women were diagnosed before they gave birth, but it is difficult to have normal diagnosis due to the lack of equipment and medicine. Based on the facts from the report, there were no blood testing and urine analysis because of shortage in equipment, which resulted in negative effects on mothers as well as their babies.
[5] Women¡¯s Marriage
Article 16
1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations and in particular shall ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women:
(a) The same right to enter into marriage;
(b) The same right freely to choose a spouse and to enter into marriage only with their free and full consent;
(c) The same rights and responsibilities during marriage and at its dissolution;
(d) The same rights and responsibilities as parents, irrespective of their marital status, in matters relating to their children; in all cases the interests of the children shall be paramount;
(e) The same rights to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights;
(f) The same rights and responsibilities with regard to guardianship, wardship, trusteeship and adoption of children, or similar institutions where these concepts exist in national legislation; in all cases the interests of the children shall be paramount;
As we have already mentioned above, Article 62 of the Socialist Constitution of North Korea guarantees equal status and rights of women, specially protecting the mothers and the children. Article 63 states, ¡°Marriage and family are protected by the state. State should care for the stability of the families which are the cells of the society,¡± designating families as objects to be protected, but it does not provide any details as to the specific methodology. Article 16 (a) and (b) of the CEDAW protects women¡¯s equal rights to marry, select the spouse and to enter into marriage under mutual agreement. Marriages in North Korea, however, prioritize loyalty to the Party and the Chief over the mutual agreement of the spouses. It is shown in the example below:
¡°Currently the marriage and love between young couples are based on companionship and revolutionary ideas. This is relationship promised to have a one mind, help and work each other making our society more independent (juche ideology). Thus our marriage condition is not base on money or property but on the mentality to commit ourselves for the government party and leader (Kim Jung-ill) throughout our lives.¡±
Even if North Korea puts emphasis on marriage based on affection and healthy ideologies, the things seen as important are practical conditions such as the educational backgrounds, professions, residential areas. We can conclude that this creates a kind of endogamy.
Article 16(c) and (d) of the CEDAW deal with issues pertaining to marriage and divorce, and the rights of the parents related to their children. Sex Equality Law which was enacted in North Korea on July 30, 1946 and the bylaws promulgated on Sept 14, 1946 are the two bases to determine the characteristics of marriage and family. The ideology behind these laws has firmly placed itself as the Constitution, and has become a basis for the laws related to family issues. The Sex Equality Law proclaims in the preamble that this law has a purpose to emancipate the women who have been discriminated against in many aspects of lives such as politics, economics, culture and family lives and to grant equal rights for them to enjoy.
However, in reality, North Koreans are barred by the government from divorce. Pursuant to the regulations passed by inner cabinet, the article 24 prohibited to divorce based on agreements between couples but based on the trial. This means that people cannot easily get divorced. According to the Holliday¡¯s interview with North Koreans, there were only few instances where North Koreans were granted rights to divorce. Even if they are granted the rights to separate from their spouses, there is a tendency that divorced women as well as remarried women are welcome in society. Generally, the social pressure on women is so strong that women do not challenge it, even though the trend is slowly changing.
The reasons for divorce are: (1) infertility; (2) unfaithfulness to the spouse; (3) difference in personalities; (4) conflicts involving the mother-in-law. No allowance is granted, and the husband should be responsible only for 15% of the expense of raising the child after the divorce. This also is a factor that prevents women from divorcing their husbands no matter how difficult their family situations are.
CONCLUSION
We have so far examined whether the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the domestic laws of North Korea regarding women¡¯s rights are in compliance with reality. Long before North Korea became a State Party to this Convention, domestic laws of North Korea had granted women equal rights and status. One can easily conclude from looking at the laws that women¡¯s rights are well protected. However, based on the testimonies and articles written by North Korean defectors, we have proven that a great disparity exists between the law and the reality. This disparity arises from the contradictory relationship between the Constitution and legislations and rules and orders.
Nevertheless, it is a remarkable step forward on the part of North Korea to become a member state of four of the seven basic human rights conventions, which can be interpreted as its attempt to comply with the international regime. When reading the country reports and the responses submitted by North Korea, we can see that the country creates unrealistic statistics and facts which are quite different from the testimonies given by the defectors. It may seem that North Korea¡¯s effort to comply with the international laws is a mere formality, and we may doubt whether or not this can actually bring about any changes. However, we believe that these changes in formality will entail changes in reality. NGOs should inform the real situations of North Korea to the international society, and the CEDAW Committee should continue with their interventions so that North Korea will withdraw its reservations and implement all the measures provided in the articles of the Convention.
1st
LANK WORKSHOP
North Korean Human Rights & International Law
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Issue 4
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[English Version]
Issue 4
Whether the South Korean government can execute ¡°diplomatic protection¡± for the North Korean defectors in China?
BRIEF ANSWER
Probably yes. According to Korean law, a North Korean defector in China is a Korean. For that reason, the South Korean government has a right to exercise diplomatic protection. The South Korean government also may provide diplomatic protection for North Korean defectors in China based on multiple nationality claim against a third state. The right of South Korea to protect North Korean defectors is also supported by customary law.
Questions Presented
1. Whether the Constitution of South Korea recognizes North Koreans as its own citizens?
2. According to the International Nationality Act, can a North Korean become naturalized in South Korea?
3. Whether North Korean defectors can be recognized as South Korean nationals notwithstanding the ambiguity surrounding the definition of the first Korean under the Korean Nationality Act.
4. If South Korean domestic law recognizes North Korean defectors as South Korean people, then whether the South Korean government can exercise ¡°diplomatic protection¡± over North Korean defectors in China.
5. What kind of problems will arise if South Korea is able to exercise diplomatic protection over North Korean defectors?
1. Introduction
According to the U.N. International Law Commission¡¯s report, ¡°diplomatic protection consists of resort to diplomatic action or other means of peaceful settlement by a State adopting in its own right the cause of its national in respect of an injury to that national arising from an internationally wrongful act of another State.¡±
In the international law area, it has been argued that the South Korean government has the right to exercise diplomatic protection over North Korean defectors in China. In this report, we would like to examine whether the South Korean government can invoke the right of ¡°diplomatic protection¡± to protect North Korean defectors in China.
According to the International Law Commission¡¯s report, ¡°the State entitled to exercise diplomatic protection is the State of nationality¡± where the meaning of the State of nationality is decided by the two factors. The first factor is whether a person, who needs protection, possesses that country¡¯s nationality. And secondly, whether the nationality was acquired in a manner that is in accordance with the international law.
It is clear that in the heart of the ¡°diplomatic protection¡± problem is the issue of whether or not North Korean defectors are recognized as South Korean citizens under South Korean domestic laws. The Korean Nationality Act defines a Korean national as a person who has at least one parent who is a Korean national. However, the law is not clear on the definition of the first Korean. In addition, possible differences in interpreting the territory clause of Article 3 of the Constitution gives room for argument that the South Korean government could recognize North Koreans as South Korean citizens.
If the above is true, then the fact that both Koreas recognize the people who live on the Korean Peninsula as their own citizens can be seen as a conflict between sovereignty of the two countries. South Korean domestic law considers North Korean defectors as South Korean nationals based on the six grounds: the Territory Clause of the Article 3 of the Constitution, the Korean Nationality Act, precedent cases from the Constitutional and the Supreme Courts, the Act on the Protection and Settlement Support of Residents Escaping From North Korea, the authoritative opinion by the Ministry of Justice , opinions of legal scholars, and customary practices of the South Korean government. Not taking existing international law into consideration, at least at the domestic level, North Korean defectors could be protected as South Koreans under the Article 6 of the Korean Constitution .
Another issue is whether the domestic nationality law is in accordance with international law. The two criteria most generally accepted in international law and predominantly applied in municipal law for the conferment of nationality are descent from a national (jus sanguinis) and the birth-within the State¡¯s territory (jus soli). South Korean domestic law defines a Korean national as a person who has Korean blood lineage and lives on the Korean Peninsula. In relation to international law, this definition could cause a dispute in terms of the range of blood lineage. North Korea, on other hand, may possibly contest the South Korean definition of its territory.
Lastly, we have to consider the issue of whether there is a realistic possibility that the South Korean government will be able to exercise ¡°diplomatic protection¡± over North Korean defectors within Chinese territory. Since the Chinese government recognizes North Korea as a sovereign state, China will unlikely be convinced to follow South Korean domestic law standards . However, in this situation, we may alternatively argue that the fact that North Korean defectors have dual nationality gives another ground for the South Korean government to exercise the right of diplomatic protection.
2. Discussion and Commentary
(1) Whether the South Korean government recognizes North Koreans as its own nationals? What are the problems under the domestic Nationality Act where a person, who was not born in South Korea, obtains South Korean nationality? On what grounds can North Korean defectors be recognized as South Korean citizens notwithstanding the ambiguity of the definition of the first Korean under the Korean Nationality Act?
The fact that the Article 3 of the Constitution, which refers to the sovereignty of South Korea over the North Korean territories, was amended nine times clearly shows South Korea¡¯s firm view on their national identity issue.
Moreover, Article 2-1 of the Nationality Act, which was enacted four months after the establishment of the Government on Dec 20 1948, states that ¡°a person whose father or mother is a national of the Republic of Korea is Korean.¡± According to this law, those who have been born in ROK after 20th Dec. 1948, have the nationality of ROK. However, there is no clear language that shows grounds for their parents¡¯ Korean nationality. Consequently, it causes some confusion because of the obscure standards of who the first Korean is. If we literally apply these standards, anyone whose parents were Koreans, such as the descendents of those compulsory transferred from Korea to China and Russia under Japanese regime, or North Koreans could be regarded as Korean nationals. As you see, the Nationality Act has an ambiguous definition of a Korean national. However, the South Korean government has six grounds to support the contention that North Koreans, including North Korean defectors can be regarded as South Korean nationals.
The first ground is the territory provision and nationality law found in the Article 3 of the Korean Constitution. According to the Article 3 of the Constitution, ¡°the territory of the Republic of Korea shall consist of the Korean peninsula and its adjacent islands.¡± This means that the territory of North Korea is included into the ROK¡¯s sovereign territory. According to this view, the recognition of the North Korean government as a sovereign is inadmissible. As a result, the North Korean government is regarded as an antinational party. Because the sovereignty of South Korea reaches through the whole Korean Peninsula, including the North Korean territory, North Koreans should be regarded within South Korea¡¯s sovereignty. Because the Korean Nationality Act recognizes a person who has at least one Korean national parent as a Korean national, any person, who is a descendent of a person living under the South Korean sovereignty, as defined in the Article 3 of the Constitution, can be regarded as a South Korean national.
The second ground is the precedent set by the judgment of the Supreme Court. In 1996, the Supreme Court supported the constitutional legal status of a North Korean in Lee Young Soon¡¯s case. In this case, the court found that the petitioner obtained the Chosun nationality by her birth from a father who was a Chosun national. And she subsequently acquired South Korean nationality when the first ROK constitution was declared in July 17 1948.
In addition, it was decided that the fact that the petitioner was a North Korean national with a valid North Korean identification did not at that time preclude her from obtaining South Korean nationality. That was possible because the South Korean sovereignty reached over to North Korea as it is stated in the Article 3 of the Constitution. The significance of this case is that it was the first case where a North Korean citizen was recognized as a South Korean national.
The third ground is the passive interpretation of the Act on the Protection and Settlement Support of Residents Escaping From North Korea. According to Article 19 of the Act, a person who does not have a place where he/she was originally domiciled, that person can apply for a census registration to be registered in any place he/she wishes to be domiciled. That means that a North Korean defector actually can acquire a census registration without any special procedure when he/she enters South Korea. Even though this law does not explicitly state the legal status of a North Korean national, it can be argued that if a North Korean national can obtain a census registration, then he/she should also be able to obtain South Korean nationality.
The Fourth ground is the authoritative opinion of the Ministry of Justice. When the Korean Nationality Act was amended in 1997, the Ministry of Justice, which was in charge of the amending process, decided that there was no need for making additional regulations for North Koreans, even though such regulations are normally required for all non-Korean persons. The reason is that North Koreans are already recognized as South Korean nationals under the Nationality law. The Ministry of Justice expressed its opinion that it would be inconsistent with the law if it put additional regulations on North Koreans.
The fifth ground is opinions of constitution law scholars. According to the majority view, North Koreans should be considered as South Korean nationals based on the interpretation of the Territory Clause. Only few scholars contend that it is wrong to recognize the North Korean people as South Korean nationals and that the Territory Clause should be interpreted only as a declaration of the boundary of the unified Korea.
Lastly, the sixth ground is the customary practice of the South Korean government with respect to North Koreans. Not only the Korean Nationality Act, but also all the municipal legal system and governmental customary practice in South Korea have always considered the North Korean people as South Korean nationals. For example, after the division, the South Korean government issued identification cards without any additional procedure to all North Koreans that came to South Korea. Likewise, under the domestic law, it is generally accepted that North Koreans have South Korean legal status based on the six above mentioned reasons notwithstanding the vagueness of the Korean Nationality Act¡¯s standards. For these reasons, because the South Korean government recognizes North Koreans as South Korean nationals under South Korean domestic law, the condition for the exercise of diplomatic protection is satisfied.
(2) If the South Korean government recognizes North Koreans as South Korean nationals, can the South Korean government exercise the right of diplomatic protection over North Koreans within China? What kind of problems can we expect to arise if South Korea is able to exercise diplomatic protection over North Korean defectors?
As it was mentioned above, North Koreans are recognized as South Korean nationals under South Korean domestic laws. However, when the South Korean government actually exercises diplomatic action or peaceful settlement to protect the North Koreans in the Chinese territory , we still have the remaining question of whether the South Korean government can get the Chinese government¡¯s approval for North Korean defectors to be considered as South Korean nationals. In fact, it seems that there is no convincing reason for the Chinese Government to follow the South Korea¡¯s position on the legal status of North Koreans. The reasons why we contend that North Koreans can be regarded as South Korean nationals is based on legal interpretation of the Korean Constitution that the Korean Peninsula and the affiliated islands are under the South Korean sovereignty. This interpretation inevitably leads to the conclusion that the North Korean government is within the South Korean sovereignty and should be regarded only as an anti-governmental party. However, contrary to the South Korea¡¯s interpretation, China has recognized North Korea as a sovereign state, and the two countries have kept a good and close relationship with each other. In this regard, it would be irrational for China to agree with the contention that North Korea is under the South Korean sovereignty, and that North Koreans have a South Korean nationality. Moreover, because there is no unitary system of recognition of a state¡¯s sovereignty, such recognition depends on each state¡¯s subjective perspective. It means that it is difficult, if not impossible, to object to China¡¯s recognition of North Korea as a sovereign state. Therefore, we need alternative standings that will help us to keep our ground and yet not harm the relationship between North Korea and China.
(3) Are there any other legal basis that the South Korean government can rely on to be able to exercise the right of diplomatic protection over North Koreans within China?
As for an alternative legal ground, the South Korean government could contend to the Chinese government that North Korean defectors have dual nationality of both the North and the South. According to this view, while North Korean defectors have South Korean nationality under South Korean domestic law, from China¡¯s standpoint, the North Korean defectors could be regarded as possessing a dual nationality. In doing so, South Korean government may be able to have a ground to exercise the right of diplomatic protection over North Koreans in China. If the Chinese government follows this view, the South Korean government will have good standing in dealing with the issue. The reason is that China is a party to the treaty that states that any State of which a dual or multiple national is a national may exercise diplomatic protection in respect of that national against a State of which that individual is not a national.
In the light of good relationships with both countries, China may admit that North Korean defectors have North Korean citizenship under the North Korean domestic law, and at the same time, they also have South Korean nationality under the South Korean domestic law. Then, the issue will become of dual nationality. China has joined the Convention on Certain Questions, Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws issued on July 1st 1937. According to the convention, ¡°subject to the provisions of the present Convention, a person having two or more nationalities may be regarded as its national by each of the States whose nationality he possesses.¡± Moreover, Article 5 states, ¡°Within a third State, a person having more than one nationality shall be treated as if he had only one. Without prejudice to the application of its law in matters of personal status and of any conventions in force, a third State shall, of the nationalities which any such person possesses, recognize exclusively in its territory either the nationality of the country in which he is habitually and principally resident, or the nationality of the country with which in the circumstances he appears to be in fact most closely connected.¡± This means that, when a North Korean defector is in China (the third state), even though previously he/she was a habitual and principal resident of North Korea, if he/she clearly shows his/her willingness to defect from North Korea and to enter South Korea, we can conclude that the nationality of the country with which in the circumstances he/she appears to be in fact most closely connected is South Korea. In accordance with this view, China as a third State has a legal ground to regard North Korean defectors as South Korean citizens. The practical problem is that China does not follow this view and regards the North Korean defectors as merely North Korean citizens.
One more possible legal ground to consider is the view in terms of international customary law. In fact, unlike China, such countries such as Mongolia, Vietnam, and Cambodia, which were once Communist countries, has shown positive attitudes towards the North Korean defectors¡¯ issue. If we can convince China that its border agreement with North Korea is an outdated remnant of the Cold War, perhaps China can be persuaded to change its policies in accordance with the post Cold War era.
As time goes by, the international law is influenced by new treaties and the stream of customary law. Due to China¡¯s joining the WTO and hosting of the Olympics, China¡¯s desire to catch up to the international standards has increased. From this viewpoint, we may conclude that there is a possibility that the Chinese government may adopt new international standards by watching how other countries treat North Korean issues and by paying close attention to international opinion.
3. Conclusion
Is it possible for the South Korean government to exercise the right of diplomatic protection over North Korean defectors in China? The answer is yes. The South Korean government can use the right to exercise diplomatic protection.
According to the Article 3 of the Constitution and the Korean Nationality Act, North Korean defectors have South Korean nationality, and for this reason the South Korean government has a right to exercise its diplomatic protection over its nationals. Although the South Korean government has sufficient domestic legal grounds to regard North Koreans as South Korean nationals, if it wants to exercise diplomatic protection in third states, the government has to show the validity of its claim. In case of the Chinese government, the South Korean government can present to it South Korea¡¯s domestic legal standard first, and, if it is necessary, can argue that the North Korean defectors have dual nationality of both North and South Koreas. Besides this point of view, it is possible to put pressure on the Chinese government to follow the example of other socialist countries and international human right standards.
1st LANK WORKSHOP
North Korean Human Rights & International Law
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1. ±¹Á¦Çü»çÀçÆÇ¼Ò(ICC)ÀÇ ¼º¸³ ¹è°æ
1998³â 7¿ù 17ÀÏ, 160°³±¹ÀÌ Âü°¡ÇÑ À¯¿£ ÃÑȸ¿¡¼ ±¹Á¦Çü»çÀçÆÇ¼Ò(ICC) ¼³¸³À» À§ÇÑ ·Î¸¶±ÔÁ¤(The Rome Statue)ÀÌ Ã¤ÅõǾú´Ù. ¼¼°è ÃÖ°´ë±¹ÀÎ ¹Ì±¹ÀÌ Ã³À½ºÎÅÍ ¹Ý´ëÀǻ縦 Ç¥¸íÇÏ¸é¼ ±¹Á¦Çü»çÀçÆÇ¼ÒÀÇ ¼³¸³ÀÌ ¼øÅºÄ¡ ¾ÊÀ» °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿¹»óÇßÁö¸¸, ±¹Á¦»çȸÀÇ Çù·Â°ú ³ë·ÂÀ¸·Î 2002³â 7¿ù 1ÀÏ ·Î¸¶±ÔÁ¤ÀÌ Á¤½ÄÀ¸·Î ¹ßÈ¿µÇ±â¿¡ À̸£·¶´Ù.
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ÀüÀïÀ» ¸·À» ¼ö´Â ¾ø¾îµµ ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Ã¥ÀÓÀ» °£°úÇÏÁö ¾Ê°Ú´Ù´Â ±¹Á¦ »çȸÀÇ ÀÇÁö´Â ¿ª»ç»ó ÃÖÃÊÀÇ »ó¼³Àû ±¹Á¦Çü»çÀçÆÇ¼Ò(ICC) ¼³¸³À¸·Î ºñ·Î¼Ò ½ÇÇöµÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ÀçÆÇ¼Ò´Â UNÀÇ ÁÖµµ·Î ¼³¸³µÇ¾úÁö¸¸ ±× ÀÚü°¡ µ¶¸³ÀûÀÎ ±¹Á¦±â±¸·Î¼ Ȱµ¿ÇÑ´Ù.
±¹Á¦Çü»çÀçÆÇ¼Ò¿¡¼ ó¹úÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ±¹Á¦ ¹üÁË´Â Áý´Ü »ìÇØÁË, Àεµ¿¡ ÚãÇÑ ÁË, ÀüÀï¹üÁË, ħ·«¹üÁË·Î Á¦ÇѵǾî ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ħ·«¹üÁËÀÇ °æ¿ì¿¡´Â ¾ÆÁ÷ ±× Á¤ÀÇ¿Í °üÇÒ±Ç Çà»ç Á¶°ÇÀÌ °áÁ¤µÇÁö ¾Ê¾Æ ´çºÐ°£ ÀÌ ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±â¼Ò´Â ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÏ´Ù.
ÀÌ ÀçÆÇ¼Ò´Â ´µ¸¥º£¸£Å©ÀÇ ¼±·Ê¸¦ µû¶ó °³Àθ¸À» ó¹úÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ¾î¶°ÇÑ °³Àεµ ±× ±¹³»¹ýÀÌ ºÎ¿©ÇÑ ÁöÀ§¸¦ ÀÌÀ¯·Î Çü»çÃ¥ÀÓÀÇ ¸éÁ¦¸¦ ÁÖÀåÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø°í, Á¤ºÎ³ª »ó°üÀÇ ¸í·É¿¡ º¹Á¾ÇßÀ» »ÓÀ̶ó´Â ÀÌÀ¯·Îµµ ¸éÃ¥À» ÁÖÀåÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ¸¸ç, °ø¼Ò½ÃÈ¿µµ ¾ø´Ù.
2. ICCÀÇ °üÇÒ ¹üÁË¿Í ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁ˸¦ ÅëÇÑ ºÏÇÑÀαǹ®Á¦¿¡ÀÇ Á¢±Ù
ICC ¼³¸³ÀÇ ±Ù°Å°¡ µÇ´Â ·Î¸¶Á¶¾à Á¦ 2ºÎ 6, 7, 8Á¶¿¡´Â µ¿ ÀçÆÇ¼Ò°¡ ´Ù·ç°Ô µÇ´Â ÁÖ¿ä ¹üÁ˰¡ ¸í½ÃµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù. Áï, Áý´Ü »ìÇØÁË(Crime of Genocide), Àεµ¿¡ ¹ÝÇÑ ÁË(Crime against Humanity), ÀüÀï ¹üÁË (War Crime), ħ·« ¹üÁË (Crime of Aggression) µîÀÌ´Ù. ´Ü, ħ·« ¹üÁË¿¡ °üÇØ¼´Â ±× Á¤Àǰ¡ ¸íÈ®È÷ ³ª¿Í ÀÖÁö ¾Ê°í ÇâÈÄ Ãß°¡ÀûÀÎ °ËÅ並 °ÅÃÄ Á¤ÀÇÇÏ°Ô µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù. À̸¦ Á¦¿ÜÇÑ ³ª¸ÓÁö ¼¼ °¡Áö ¹üÁË¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼´Â °¢°¢ÀÇ ¹üÁË ±¸¼º ¿ä°ÇÀÌ ºñ±³Àû ÀÚ¼¼È÷ ³ª¿µÇ¾î ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ¸¹Àº Ç׸ñ¿¡¼ ¼·Î ÁßøµÇ±âµµ ÇÑ´Ù. ¿¹¸¦ µé¾î, ¹Î°£ÀεéÀ» ´ë»óÀ¸·Î ÇÑ »ìÀΰú ³ë¿¹È, °Á¦ ÀÌ¼Û ÇàÀ§´Â ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁË¿Í ÀüÀï¹üÁ˰¡ ÁßøµÇ´Â ´ëÇ¥ÀûÀÎ ÁöÁ¡À̰í, ÀÎÁ¾, ±¹¹Î, ¹ÎÁ·, Á¾±³ Áý´Ü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÚÇØ¿Í ¹Î°£Àο¡ ´ëÇÑ »ìÀÎ, Àý¸ê, °Á¦ À̼Û, ±×¸®°í °Á¦ Ó¨ðú µîÀº ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁË¿Í Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁ˰¡ ¼·Î °ãÄ¡´Â ºÎºÐÀÌ´Ù.
ÀÌ Áß¿¡¼ ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁË´Â 1Â÷ ´ëÀüÀÌ ÇÑâÀÌ´ø 1915³â 5¿ù ¼¹æ ¿¬ÇÕ±¹µéÀÌ ÅÍŰÀÇ ¾Æ¸£¸Þ´Ï¾ÆìÑ Çл쿡 ´ëÇØ °æ°íÇÏ´Â ¼±¾ðÀ» ¹ßÇ¥ÇÏ´Â ÀÚ¸®¿¡¼ óÀ½ µîÀåÇÑ ºñ±³Àû »õ·Î¿î °³³äÀ̶ó ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÐþßöÇÑ ¹Ù¿Í °°ÀÌ, ÀÌ ¹üÁË´Â ´µ¸¥º£¸£Å© ±¹Á¦ÀçÆÇÇåÀå¿¡¼ ¡°¹üÁ˰¡ ÇàÇØÁø ±¹°¡ÀÇ ±¹³»¹ý Ä§ÇØ ¿©ºÎ¿Í °ü°è ¾øÀÌ ÀüÀï ÀüÀ̳ª ÀüÀï µ¿¾È¿¡ ¹Î°£ÀεéÀ» ´ë»óÀ¸·Î ÀÚÇàµÈ »ìÀÎ, Àý¸ê, ³ë¿¹È, °Á¦ À̼Û, ±× ¹ÛÀÇ ºñÀεµÀû ÇàÀ§, ¶Ç´Â ±× ¹üÁË¿Í ¿¬°èµÇ¾î Á¤Ä¡Àû, ÀÎÁ¾Àû, Á¾±³Àû ÀÌÀ¯¿¡¼ °¡ÇÑ ¹ÚÇØ´Â ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁË¿¡ ÇØ´çÇÑ´Ù¡±°í ¸í½ÃÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ±× È¿·ÂÀÌ Á¦µµÈ µÇ¾ú´Ù.
ÀüÀï ¹üÁËÀÇ °æ¿ì, ±¹Á¦Àû ȤÀº ±¹³»Àû ¹«·Â ¹ß¹ß ÇÏ¿¡ ±¹Á¦Àû °ü½À¹ý µî¿¡ ¾î±ß³ª´Â »ç·Ê¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¹ýÀû Á¦ÀçÀÇ ±Ù°Å¸¦ ¸¶·ÃÇϰí ÀÖ°í, Áý´Ü »ìÇØ ¹üÁËÀÇ °æ¿ì¿¡´Â, ƯÁ¤ Áý´Ü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀǵµÀû »ìÇØ ÇàÀ§¸¦ °üÇÒÇÑ´Ù. µû¶ó¼ ÀüÀï ¹üÁË´Â ¡®ÀüÀÀ̶ó´Â Ư¼öÇÑ »óȲ ÇÏ¿¡¼¸¸ ¼º¸³µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù´Â Á¦¾àÀÌ ÀÖ°í, Áý´Ü »ìÇØ ¹üÁË´Â ·Î¸¶ Á¶¾à Á¦ 6Á¶ÀÇ ïÒëù ¹× ¹Ð·Î¼ÎºñÄ¡ÀÇ Áý´Ü»ìÇØ ¹üÁËÇøÀÇ ÀÔÁõãÁ¿¡¼ º¸¿©Áöµí, ƯÁ¤ ±¹¹Î, ÀÎÁ¾, ¹ÎÁ·, Á¾±³ ±×·ì¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÄ¸ê Àǵµ¸¦ Áõ¸íÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ Ññð¹·Î ÀÛ¿ëÇÒ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ³ô´Ù.
±×·¯³ª ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁËÀÇ °æ¿ì¿¡´Â ±¹ÀûÀ̳ª µ¿¸Í¿¡ »ó°ü¾øÀÌ °³ÀÎÀÇ ÀαÇÀ» º¸È£ÇÏÀÚ´Â Àǵµ¿¡¼ Á¤ÀǵǾú°í, ¹«¾ùº¸´Ù ÀüÀï Àü¿¡ ¹ú¾îÁø ÇàÀ§¿Í ±¹³»¹ý»ó ÇÕ¹ýÀûÀÎ °æ¿ì¿¡¶óµµ ó¹úÇÒ ¼ö Àִٴ Ư¡ÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ¿Ö³ÄÇϸé ÀÌ ¹üÁËÀÇ ÁÖ¿äÇÑ ¼º¸³¿ä°ÇÀº ¡°Á¤ºÎ Á¤Ã¥ÀÇ ÇÑ ºÎºÐÀ¸·Î¼ ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÏ°íµµ ü°èÀûÀ¸·Î ÀÌ·ç¾îÁö´Â ¹üÁË¡±ÀÌ¸é µÇ±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ ·Î¸¶Á¶¾àÀº ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁËÀÇ ¼º¸³Á¶°ÇÀ¸·Î Â÷º° Àǵµ(discriminatory motive); Áï, Á¤Ä¡Àû, Á¾±³Àû, ÀÎÁ¾Àû Â÷º° µî Àǵµ°¡ ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀ» ¿ä±¸ÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ´ÜÁö ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁËÀÇ ¿©·¯ °¡Áö ±¸¼º ÇàÀ§ Áß, ¡®¹ÚÇØ¡¯ÀÇ °æ¿ì¿¡¸¸ Â÷º°Àǵµ°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´ÂÁö¸¦ ¹°À» »ÓÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ´Â ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁËÀÇ ±â¼Ò¿¡ ÀÖ¾î ºÒÇÊ¿äÇÑ °í·Á»çÇ×À» °¡´ÉÇÑ ÇÑ ÃÖ¼ÒÈÇϰí ÀÖÀ½À» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù.
ÀÌ·¸°Ô Ÿ ¹üÁË¿Í ºñ±³ÇØ º¼ ¶§, ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁË´Â »ó´ëÀûÀ¸·Î ±× °üÇÒ ¹üÀ§°¡ Æ÷°ýÀûÀ̸ç, ±â¼Ò°¡ ºñ±³Àû ¼ö¿ùÇÏ°í °ø¼ÒÀ¯Áöµµ À¯¸®ÇÏ´Ù°í º¸¿©Áø´Ù. ÏÁ À¯°í½½¶óºñ¾Æ ¹ýÁ¤¿¡¼µµ ¹Ð·Î¼¼ºñÄ¡¿Í ÇÙ½É Ãø±ÙµéÀ» ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁ˷θ¸ ó¹ú ÇÏ´À³Ä, ¾Æ´Ï¸é ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁË¿Í Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁ˷Πó¹úÇÏ´À³Ä°¡ °¡Àå Å« ÀïÁ¡ÀÌ µÇ¾ú´ø °ÍÀº À̸¦ ¹ÝÁõÇØ ÁÖ´Â ÁÁÀº ¿¹¶ó ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.
µû¶ó¼ ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁËÀÇ °üÇÒ¹üÀ§ÀÇ Æ÷°ý¼º°ú ±â¼ÒÀÇ ¼ö¿ù¼º µîÀ» °í·ÁÇØº¼ ¶§, ºÏÇÑ À뱂 ¹®Á¦-º¸´Ù ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀ¸·Î, Á¤Ä¡¹ü ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿Í °ü·ÃÇÑ Àαǹ®Á¦ - ÀÇ ±¹Á¦¹ýÀû ÇØ°áÀº öâ¹üÁË¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ±â¼Òº¸´Ù »ó´ëÀûÀ¸·Î ½ÇÇö °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ´õ ³ôÀº ÚãÀεµ ¹üÁ˸¦ ¿ì¼±ÀûÀÎ ¹ýÀû ±Ù°Å·Î »ç¿ëÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ Å¸´çÇÏ´Ù°í ÇϰڴÙ.
<·Î¸¶±Ô¾à> Á¦7Á¶ Àεµ¿¡ ¹ÝÇÑ ÁË (Crimes against Humanity)
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°¢ ¿ä°Ç º°·Î »ç½Ç Àû¿ëÀ» ÇØº¸¸é °á°ú´Â ´ÙÀ½°ú °°´Ù.
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¨è ±¤¹üÀ§Çϰųª ü°èÀûÀÎ °ø°ÝÀÇ ÀϺÎ(committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack): ÀÌ ¿ä°Ç¿¡¼´Â ÇàÀ§ÀÇ ¡®±¤¹ü¼º¡¯°ú ¡®Ã¼°è¼º¡¯À» »ìÆìº¼ °ÍÀ» ¿ä±¸Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù. ¿©±â¼ ¡®±¤¹ü¼º¡¯Àº »ó´çÇÑ ¼ýÀÚÀÇ Èñ»ýÀÚµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â ´ë±Ô¸ð °ø°ÝÀ̾î¾ß ÇÔÀ» ÀǹÌÇϰí, ¡®Ã¼°è¼º¡¯Àº ³ôÀº ¼öÁØÀÇ Á¶Á÷¼º°ú ¹æ¹ý·ÐÀûÀÎ ¸é¿¡¼ÀÇ °èȹ¼ºÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù´Â ¶æÀÌ´Ù.
Àϰ¢¿¡¼´Â, ±¤¹ü¼º°ú ü°è¼ºÀÇ ¿ä°ÇÀÌ ¡®µ¿½Ã¿¡¡¯ ¸¸Á·µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÎÁö, ¾Æ´Ï¸é µÑ Áß Çϳª¸¸ ¸¸Á·µÇ¾îµµ ±¦ÂúÀº °ÍÀÎÁö¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ³í¶õÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é µ¿½Ã ¸¸Á·µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÒ °æ¿ì ±â¼Ò°¡ ´õ¿í ±î´Ù·Ó±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ºÏÇÑÀÇ °æ¿ì ¿¡´Â ±¤¹ü¼º°ú ü°è¼ºÀ» µ¿½Ã¿¡ ã¾Æº¼ ¼ö Àֱ⠶§¹®¿¡ µ¿ ¿ä°ÇÀÇ Àû¿ë¿¡ ÀÖ¾î ¾î·Á¿òÀº ¾øÀ» °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸ÀδÙ.
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[English Version]
ISSUE 5
Whether the ¡°Crimes against Humanity¡± committed in the North Korean political camps can be prosecuted in the International Criminal Court (ICC)?
Brief answer
Yes. Considering its jurisdictional inclusiveness and relative easiness in prosecution, among the four crimes governed by the ICC, the crimes against humanity will be the most highly plausible approach to deal with the North Korean human rights issue, especially, surrounding the political prison camps. It is summed up that the Kim Jeong-il¡¯s regime, while operating political prison camps by the National Security Agency, directed and executed such acts as forced labor, torture and murder widespread and systemically against civilians under the name of eradicating the possible destabilizing factors to its regime, which satisfies all the elements of crimes against humanity defined in the Article 7 of the Rome Statute.
Among the major three entities for prosecution in the ICC – the State Parties, the Security Council of the UN, the Chief prosecutor of the ICC, the Security Council of the UN will have difficulties to draw a consensus because of the adjusting of conflicting interests of each super power, especially, China. There is little possibility that North Korea will voluntarily engage in this issue, and also the South Korean government is unlikely to face this issue actively because it has already shown its scruple by abstention from voting to the bill of North Korean Human Rights Act in the UN a few times. One remaining solution could be the NGOs¡¯ networking to provide information to the Office of Prosecution in the ICC so that the Chief Prosecutor can directly initiate investigations with the approval of the Pre-trial chamber and proceed with prosecution process in the ICC.
Introduction
The establishment of the International Criminal Court by the Rome Statue opened the door for investigation, conviction, and punishment for individuals who commit crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes of aggression called the most heinous crimes. Since the foundation of the ICC it has been requested to investigate the crimes committed in Congo, Uganda, Sudan, and the Central African Republic. The investigation of three of them has been recently initiated by the ICC prosecutors.
North Korea has been already known in the world for its notorious communist regime because it has deprived its citizens of universal freedoms and liberty by the idolization of Il-Sung Kim and his son, Jung-Il Kim. In particular, the existence and reality of political camps in North Korea has begun to disclose through the testimonies of the North Korean defectors. According to their testimonies, once a person is suspected as anti-regime factor he/she, even including their families, are arrested and confined in political camps. Many experts on North Korean human rights assume that the prisoners there are treated as slaves, and therefore, the Republic of Korea has a duty to bring the suffering of hundreds of thousands of North Koreans in gulags and other prison camps to the international attention.
1. ICC and Its Historical Background
On July 17, 1998, representatives from approximately 160 nations met in Rome at the UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries and adopted the Rome Statute for the establishment of the International Criminal Court. Despite opposition of the United States , the superpower of the world, the Rome Statute entered into force on July 1, 2002.
The International Criminal Court is a ¡®permanent¡¯ international criminal court, designed to have jurisdiction over ¡®individuals¡¯ who violate international humanitarian law.
World War I, II
The first attempt to establish an international penal process arose after World War I in order to punish those who committed war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, international justice failed because of indifference of the western allies.
The Nuremberg Military Tribunal
Since the whole world including Europe as well as Asia and Africa experienced atrocities of World War II, the United States, Britain, France, and the Union Soviet signed the London Agreement for the establishment of the International Military Court. The ad hoc tribunal was set up at Nuremberg and war criminals were prosecuted according to the Charter of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal.
The Nuremberg indictment consisted of three counts: crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity .
It is interesting to note that the accused were not excused because they merely obeyed the instructions of their commanders. At the conclusion of the trial, the International Military Tribunal found nineteen individuals guilty, and twelve among them were sentenced to death and three to imprisonment for life.
The Nuremberg Tribunal is a milestone for development of international law because it ended the immunity for crimes against humanity and provided the principles and proceedings for prosecuting international crimes.
UN ad hoc Tribunal
After the Cold War, the international community witnessed heinous crimes against humanity called ¡®the ethnic cleansing¡¯ in Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The UN created ad hoc tribunals respectively at Netherlands and Tanzania in order to penalize those who had committed widespread and systemic acts of violence against civilians.
The two ad hoc tribunals addressed the need of the international community for a permanent international criminal court in order to bring to justice those individuals responsible for human rights violations.
The International Criminal Court
In 2002, the birth of the International Criminal Court, which is the first permanent international judicial organ that punishes individual perpetrators of international crimes, demonstrated the willingness of the international community to deal with international crimes, even if that would not effectively deter them. The court is an independent international institution itself, even though it was created under the UN.
The ICC has jurisdiction over four types of crimes: (1) genocide; (2) crimes against humanity; (3) war crimes; and (4) crimes of aggression. However, it cannot exercise jurisdiction over crimes of aggression because the Statute has not yet defined it and its conditions under which the Court shall exercise jurisdiction with respect to this crime.
The ICC has jurisdiction only over ¡®natural persons¡¯ , not states, in compliance with the precedents of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal, and the Statute applies to all persons without distinction based on official capacity within their nations. And also, a perpetuator is not excused from being prosecuted by the fact that he/she just obeyed his/her superior authorities or government. There is no statute of limitations on those crimes.
2. The North Korean Human Rights and Crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC
The Article 5 of the Rome Statute prescribes the most serious crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court: crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes of aggression. With respect to crimes of aggression, once the crime is defined and the conditions under which the Court can exercise its jurisdiction are set out, the Court will be able to exercise jurisdiction over that crime. The Rome Statute describes and explains the elements of the other three crimes, and they overlap with each other. For example, crimes against humanity and war crimes have common elements such as murder, enslavement and deportation of population, and crimes against humanity and the crime of genocide have the same elements such as persecution against a national, ethnical, racial, or religious groups, murder, extermination, deportation of population and enforced disappearance of persons. A good example of that overlapping is that, at the International Criminal Tribunal in Yugoslavia, the most disputable issue was whether Slobodan Milosevic should be convicted of crimes against humanity or the crime of genocide.
The concept of crimes against humanity appeared for the first time in 1915, after the mass killings of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. After the World War II, the concept of crimes against humanity was defined and the Charter of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal provided:
murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war; or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated.
War crimes mean grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, or other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in international armed conflict within the established framework of international law.
The crime of genocide should be committed with intent to destroy a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.
Consequently, war crimes are limited to the crimes committed in the time of war. As for the crime of genocide a prosecutor must prove specific intent to destroy a national, ethnical, racial or religious group in whole or in part.
However, the very purpose of crimes against humanity is to protect human beings regardless of their national or other allegiance, and thus, it can be punished regardless of whether they are perpetrated in time of war or peace and regardless of a part of governmental policy. Under the Rome Statue, the crime must be committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack . Additionally, the Statue does not necessarily require discriminatory motive as the condition of crimes against humanity. Among the elements, discriminatory intent is required in persecution.
Therefore, crimes against humanity have two merits of jurisdictional inclusiveness and relative easiness in prosecution proceeding in comparison with the other two crimes.
Rome Statute Article 7 Crimes against humanity1. For the purpose of this Statute, 'crime against humanity' means any of the following actswhen committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilianpopulation, with knowledge of the attack:(a) Murder;(b) Extermination;(c) Enslavement;(d) Deportation or forcible transfer of population;(e) Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation offundamental rules of international law;(f) Torture;(g) Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization,or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity;(h) Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national,ethnic, cultural, religious, gender as defined in paragraph 3, or other grounds that are universallyrecognized as impermissible under international law, in connection with any act referred to in thisparagraph or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court;(i) Enforced disappearance of persons;(j) The crime of apartheid;(k) Other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, orserious injury to body or to mental or physical health.
3. Cases of Political Camps (Based on defectors¡¯ testimonies)
Status of the North Korea¡¯s Political Camps
(NEED TO IDENTIFY DIRECT CITATIONS!!!)
Primitive prison-labor camps in North Korea initially were set up immediately after the World War II, for potential enemies of the revolution: landowners, collaborators with the Japanese occupation, religious leaders, and some family members of those individuals who went south after the Soviet/American division of the Korean peninsular. Following the Korean War, suspected collaborators with the American and South Korean forces were imprisoned. As Kim Il Sung consolidated the power, various factions of the Korean Workers¡¯ Party, the state bureaucracy, and the army officers were purged and imprisoned. Not only so, also imprisoned were various categories of people who did not fit into the Party¡¯s plan for the country, and those perceived as posing a threat to the regime should they remain in society. Included here were a large number of Japanese citizens of Korean ethnic descent whose families had been taken to Japan for forced labor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, during the Japanese occupation of Korea, but who returned to North Korea in the 1950s and 1960s. They were later deemed to have been spoiled by their exposure to Japanese liberalism and capitalist prosperity.
In the 1990s, imprisonment also befell some North Korean students and diplomats who had been studying or posted to the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe and had been exposed to the collapse of socialist rule. Also imprisoned were others who were perceived to be potential complainers and persons who purposely or inadvertently did not take proper care of photographs of the ¡°Great Leader,¡± Kim Il Sung, or the ¡°Dear Leader,¡±
Some South Korean experts posit that these camps also became places where un-repatriated South Korean prisoners of war were dumped after the Korean War, as were a much smaller number of South Korean POWs who were captured by the Viet Cong or North Vietnamese during the American-Vietnamese war and turned over by the Vietnamese to North Korea. Also believed to have been placed in the prison system were a larger number of South Koreans, including many fishermen, who were captured or abducted by North Korea over the years, and a smaller number of Japanese citizens who were abducted from Japan by North Korea for various reasons. More fundamentally, as North Korea adopted a three-tiered seongbun — a political/class structure — of ¡°loyal,¡± ¡°wavering,¡± and ¡°hostile¡± classes, and the entire population was registered into one of the categories, some of those classified within the ¡°hostile¡± subgroups are believed to have been imprisoned.
According to the defectors¡¯ testimonies regarding the status of camps and detaining areas, there are 8 kwan-li-so (Political Penal-Labor Colonies), 8 Kyo-hwa-so (Long-Term Prison-Labor Camps), 5 Do-jip-kyul-so (Provincial Detention Centers), 2 Ro-dong-dan-ryeon-dae (Labor-Training Camps), 13 prisons and detaining facilities.
According to Ali Lamada, with the release of whom the existence of political camps was disclosed to the world, there were some twenty other prison-labor camps holding, Lamada calculated, at that time roughly 150,000 prisoners altogether from 1967 to 19741967
Yoduk Kwan-li-so No.15 (Testimonies from Kang Chol-hwan, An Hyuk, Kim Tae-jin, Lee Yong-guk)
As stated before, the ¡®political camps¡¯ are called ¡®kwan-li-so.¡¯ The people imprisoned there are subjected to very inhumane treatment. Among them, Yodok is the most well-documented kwan-li-so in North Korea, because, in addition to having a lifetime-imprisonment ¡°total-control zone,¡± it also has a ¡°revolutionizing zone,¡± which operates more like the kyo-hwa-so prisons, described later in this report, in that prisoners can be released back into the larger society. The four former prisoners mentioned above were all in the ¡°revolutionizing zone.¡± Their accounts of Yodok cover almost all of the years from 1977 to 1999.
The official name of this political camp reads ¡°Border Patrol Unit 2915. It is located in Yodok-kun, in South Hamgyong Province. Yodok-kun30 contains twenty ri and five of which comprise Yodok. The whole encampment is surrounded by a barbed-wire fence measuring 3 to 4 meters in height. In some areas there are walls 2 to 3 meters tall topped with electrical wire. Along the fence there are watchtowers measuring 7 to 8 meters in in height, set at 1-kilometer intervals, and patrolled by 1,000 guards armed with automatic rifles and hand grenades.
During An Hyuk¡¯s year-and-a-half imprisonment, there were some 30,000 prisoners in the lifetime area, and 1,300 singles and 9,300 family members in the revolutionizing zone along with some 5,900 Koreans, including Kang¡¯s family, who had voluntarily repatriated from Japan but were later judged not to fit into the ¡°Kim Il Sung nation.¡±
According to Kang Chol Hwan, labor operations at the section of Yodok where he lived included a gypsum quarry and a re-opened gold mine (which was originally opened during the Japanese occupation of Korea), where some 800 men worked in groups of five. Assignments in these mines were considered the worst form of labor because of the frequency of work accidents there. The section for ethnic Koreans who had voluntarily repatriated from Japan also had textile plants; a distillery for corn, acorn, and snake
brandy; and a coppersmith workshop. The prisoners raised rabbits for the lining of soldiers¡¯winter coats, worked on agricultural teams, and were periodically organized to look for hardwoods and gather wild ginseng in the forest hillsides.
During Kang¡¯s ten-year imprisonment there were somewhere between 2,000 and 3,000 persons in his village, and about one hundred deaths per year from malnutrition and disease, particularly from severe diarrhea leading to dehydration. While Kang¡¯s was a family village, sexual contact between men and women was not allowed, as it was thought this could result in another generation of counter-revolutionaries. Such contact did occur, of course, but, with two exceptions in ten years, all pregnancies
were forcibly aborted. The involved men would be physically punished and the women would be humiliated by being compelled to recount their sexual encounters to the entire village.
Both areas within Yodok where Kang, Lee, An, and Kim were imprisoned, had public executions by hanging and shootings — and sometimes worse — for prisoners who had tried to escape or who had been caught ¡°stealing¡± food. Lee witnessed one public killing of an attempted escapee, HAHN Seung Chul, who was tied and dragged behind a car in front of the assembled prisoners until dead, after which
time the other prisoners were required to pass by and place their hands on his bloodied corpse. Another prisoner, AHN Sung Eun, shouted out against this atrocity, and he was immediately shot to death. Kim witnessed a public execution by firing squad after which the assembled prisoners were required to pass by and throw a stone at the corpse still slumped and hanging from the post to which the victim had been tied. Several women prisoners fainted as they were pressed to further mutilate the corpse. Kang witnessed
some fifteen executions during his ten years at the area where he was imprisoned.
Application of the Crimes against Humanity
First we need to examine how the Rome Statue Article 7 defines the elements of the Crimes against Humanity. Four major unique aspects can be drawn: the absence of a requirement of relevance to an armed conflict, (2) the absence of a requirement of a discriminatory motive, (3) the 'widespread or systematic attack' criterion, and (4) the element of mens rea.
The brief summary of the elements of the Crime is below.
¨ç Object of the Crime: civilians¨è Method: conducted as a part of widespread or systemic attack¨é Mens rea: awareness of the attack or risk¨ê Acts: murder, extermination, torture and others enumerated in the Article
The result of the fact-application for each element is as follows.
¨ç Attack directed against any civilian population: the Article 7 paragraph 2 regulates the term 'Attack directed against any civilian population' as meaning a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack. We can divide it into three sub-elements: the object of the attack, the element of scale and the element of planning or directing. That is, the attack should be the one conducted onto civilians as a part of national or organizational policies with plan and a certain level of scale.
The prisoners of the political camps are mostly civilians. The common reason of imprisonment is that they are suspected to be against the North Korean regime, or they are deemed as not fitting for the kingdom of Kim Il Song and Kim Jong Il. There are even many ¡®innocent¡¯ family members imprisoned by the philosophy of collective responsibility and guilt by association. Likewise, their imprisonment is a part of national policy to stabilize the regime. The prisoners are subjected to all the violations enumerated in the Article 7 such as forced deportation to the imprisoned area, inhumane life environment, torture, forced labor, extermination and murder and so forth. To sum up, the attack is directed against civilian population in line with the national policy in the form of political camps. And the attack includes murder, extermination and torture and other inhumane acts mentioned in the Statute. Thus, this element is satisfied.
¨è Committed as a part of a widespread or systematic attack: this element requires examination of two distinctive notions of the attack: widespread and systemic. The term 'widespread' requires large-scale action involving a substantial number of victims, whereas the term 'systematic' requires a high degree of orchestration and methodical planning.
There is some controversy on whether these two aspects of the attack should be disjunctive or conjunctive in order to satisfy the element of the Crime against Humanity. And if it is conjunctive, it is much less likely that prosecution will be successful. However, here in case of North Korea¡¯s political camps, it is not likely to cause difficulties in the application of the fact because those two aspects of the attack are clearly found.
North Korea¡¯s adoption of a three-tiered seongbun — a political/class structure — system and operation of the political camps as a part of national policy sacrifices from hundreds to thousands of victims to be tortured and killed every year, which constitute the standard of being widespread. And also, this whole system of political camps has been the core mechanism to control over its people and to stabilize the regime.
¨é With knowledge of the attack: the definition in the ICC statute confirms that the accused, while not necessarily responsible for the overarching attack against the civilian population, must at least be aware of the attack. It does not require a sort of high level of intent to destroy specific group or people as it does in the Crime of Genocide. Since it is difficult to prove mens rea, this element could be attacked in different ways. However, the overarching argument about this possible controversy can be solved by the definition found in the Statute itself. That is, if the aspect of the attack is proved to be widespread or systemic, subsequently the awareness of the risk or attack will be a natural precedence. The possible contention that there was no awareness of the risk where the attack is widespread or systemic will be harder to prove. Thus, this could be mentioned as a self-proving element following the satisfaction of the previous element regarding the aspects of the attack.
In North Korea, Kim Jong Il is at the center of all the national organization including the National Security Agency which controls the political camps. And the imprisonment of, so called, the political prisoners is executed by the order or decision from the superior officer in the NSA. At least the agents and KJI should be aware of how the political camps operate in terms of treating the people who are imprisoned. In other words, a system to control the people by the highly-orchestrated establishment and operation of political camps is not possible to exist without intent to do so.
¨ê Any of the following acts
The ICC Statute Article 7 comes up with many details in terms of the a course of conducts which constitute the Crimes against Humanity: murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or forcible transfer of population, imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law, torture, rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity, persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender, enforced disappearance of persons, the crime of apartheid, and other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health.
Based on the accumulated testimonies of the defectors from North Korea, most of the items mentioned in this Statute were committed: murder (killing by torture, public execution etc.), extermination (intentional deprivation of food and medicine, devastating environment), deportation or forcible transfer of population (like the example of the grandfather of Kang Chol-hwan, prisoners usually face a sudden forcible deportation without explanation or notice and after their release, they are restricted to live in the designated area), torture, persecution (imprisonment by political and religious reason), enforced disappearance of persons (in fact, the information about the location of the prisoners is hidden).
C. Prosecution of each member of the NSA, who obeyed the orders from Superiors
In prosecuting the agents of the NSA, it could be a question whether those who committed the crime only by the order from superiors are liable for their actions. According to the Article 33, Superior orders and prescription of law, the fact that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been committed by a person pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, shall not relieve that person of criminal responsibility. But more clearly the second paragraph of this article says that orders to commit genocide or crimes against humanity are manifestly unlawful. Thus, they are not free from their guilt and so, the persecution of them is possible.
4. Investigation and Prosecution in the ICC
The main parties which are able to prosecute in the ICC, are State Parties, the United Nations Security Council and the ICC Prosecutors¡¯ office. In case of direct prosecution by the ICC prosecutor, it should be going through the evaluating process by the pre-trial chamber. The details of the investigation and prosecution are dealt in Part 5 in the Rome Statute: ¡°The Prosecutor may initiate investigations proprio motu on the basis of information on crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court. The Prosecutor shall analyze the seriousness of the information received. For this purpose, he or she may seek additional information from States, organs of the United Nations, intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations, or other reliable sources that he or she deems appropriate, and may receive written or oral testimony at the seat of the Court. If the Prosecutor concludes that there is a reasonable basis to proceed with an investigation, he or she shall submit to the Pre-Trial Chamber a request for authorization of an investigation, together with any supporting material collected. Victims may make representations to the Pre-Trial Chamber, in accordance with the Rules of Procedure and Evidence. And if the Pre-Trial Chamber, upon examination of the request and the supporting material, considers that there is a reasonable basis to proceed with an investigation, and that the case appears to fall within the jurisdiction of the Court, it shall authorize the commencement of the investigation, without prejudice to subsequent determinations by the Court with regard to the jurisdiction and admissibility of a case.¡±
Among the cases, so far referred to the Office of the Prosecutors in the ICC, three cases were administered by State Parties and one situation was referred by the United Nations Security Council. Even though the Rome Statute enables the Prosecutor to initiate the investigation and prosecution depending on the information provided by NGOs and even individuals, there is none. This could mean, not conclusively though, that the role of each State Party is relatively more significant than that of other entity like organizations or individuals.
In the exercise of jurisdiction, the court will have an automatic jurisdiction over the the State on the territory of which the conduct in question occurred or, the State of which the person accused of the crime is a national without the approval of the State. Even though the national court has the first jurisdiction over the matters in question and if the nation itself has no willingness or ability to deal with, the jurisdiction will be hand over to the ICC.
Conclusion
The issue of the political camps is central to the North Korea¡¯s human rights question. In summary it can be said that the Kim Jeong-Il¡¯s regime directed and executed a course of actions such as forced labor, torture and murder widespread and systemically against civilians with the knowledge of doing such attacks under the name of eradicating the possible destabilizing factors to its regime while operating political prison camps by the National Security Agency, which satisfy all the elements of crimes against humanity defined in the Article 7 of the Rome Statute.
The closed communist regime has knowingly and willfully starved out approximately 3,000,000 people under the name of idolizing KIM Il-Sung and Kim Jung-Il Kim. Political camps are just a tool for torture and killings to maintain the regime.
Korean government recently expressed its unwillingness to engage in the North Korea¡¯s human rights issue by abstention from the voting for the North Korea Human Right Bill at the UN. There could be plausible excuses of doing so to consider the future benefit. However, thousands of innocent North Koreans are still suffering from the inhumane acts committed by their leader. This vague and irresponsible stance of South Korea will be criticized by international community and also it is a clear violation against the ideology of the establishment of the ICC.
It is certain that the peace in the Korean Peninsula cannot be achieved without mutual cooperation between the two Koreas. As the openness of the international society further grows, North Korea inevitably will be engaged in the international society by certain types of pressure such as entering into international treaties or coming to the negotiation table like 6 party talks. So it will be one of the good solutions that North Korea and South Korea will prepare for the safety zone for peace in the protection of the ICC. Therefore, ¡®political camps¡¯ issue should be solved for us to achieve it.
1st LANK WORKSHOP
North Korean Human Rights & International Law
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Issue 6
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(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
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B. ºÏÇÑ Ã¼Á¦ÀÇ Á¾±³Àû Ư¼º
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A. Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾àÀÇ Àû¿ë°¡´É¼º
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B. »ç·Ê 1: ´ë·® ¾Æ»ç
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1. ±â±ÙÀº Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å ïÒëù(c)¿¡ ÇØ´çÇÑ´Ù
±â±ÙÀº 2Á¶(c)»óÀÇ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å ïÒëù, °ð ¡°Æ¯Á¤Áý´ÜÀÇ »ýȰÁ¶°Ç¿¡ Àü¹ÝÀûÀ¸·Î ¶Ç´Â ºÎºÐÀûÀ¸·Î ½Åü»ó ÆÄ±«¸¦ ÃÊ·¡ÇÏ´Â Á¤µµ¿¡ À̸£±â±îÁö ÇÇÇØ¸¦ ³¢Ä¡´Â °Í¡±¿¡ ÇØ´çÇÏ´Â Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁ˶ó°í ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ±â±ÙÀº ¡°±¤¹üÀ§ÇÑ »ç¸ÁÀ» ÃÊ·¡ÇÏ´Â [±â¾Æ]ÀÇ Æ¯È÷ ±Ø¾ÇÇÑ ÇüÅ¡±ÀÌ´Ù.(16)
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2. Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÆÄ±«ÀÇ Àǵµ´Â Á¤È² Áõ°Å¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Ãß·ÐµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù
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ƯÁ¤ Àǵµ¶õ ¹ü¹ýÀÚ°¡ ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î actus reus¸¦ °á°úÇÒ °ÍÀ» °Ü³ÉÇØ¼ ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î actus reus¸¦ ¹üÇßÀ» ¶§¸¸ ¼º¸³µÈ´Ù.(20) ÀϹݹý°ú ´Þ¸® ¾çÀÚ°£¿¡ ¹ýÀû °ü°è°¡ °³ÀçµÅ ÀÖ´Â °æ¿ì¿¡ ºÎÀÛÀ§¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼ Èñ»ýÀÚµéÀÌ Á×µµ·Ï ¹æÄ¡ÇÑ °æ¿ì¿¡µµ »ìÀÎÀÇ Ã¥ÀÓÀÌ Àü°¡µÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.(21) ºÏÇÑ Çå¹ý¿¡ µû¸£¸é ¡°ð¯ì£ðÉ ðÈàØÚÅñ«ñ«ëùìÑÚÅÍìûúÏÐÀÇ ñ«ÏíÀº ìÑÚÅ¿¡°Ô ÀÖ´Ù.¡±¶ó°í ±ÔÁ¤Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù.(22)
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ȲÀ忱 Àü ºÏÇÑ ³ëµ¿´ç ºñ¼¿¡ µû¸£¸é ºÏÇÑ Á¤ºÎ´Â Àü±¹À» °Å¸ÇÑ ½É°¢ÇÑ ±â±Ù¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí 8¾ï 9õ¸¸ ´Þ·¯¸¦ ¡®±èÀϼº ±Ý¼ö»ê ±â³ä±ÃÀü¡¯À» °Ç¸³ÇÏ´Â µ¥ »ç¿ëÇß´Ù. ÀÌ µ·Àº ¿Á¼ö¼ö 6¹é¸¸ÅæÀ» ±¸ÀÔÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â µ·À̾ú´Ù. ±èÁ¤ÀÏÀÌ ½Ä·®À» ±¸ÀÔÇÏ´Â µ¥ ÀÌ µ·À» ½è´Ù¸é Àû¾îµµ 1¹é¸¸À» ±â¾Æ¿¡¼ ±¸Á¦ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾úÀ» °ÍÀ̶ó°í ÁöÀûÇß´Ù.(23) °Ô´Ù°¡ ±èÁ¤ÀÏÀº ±â¾Æ»çÅ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í µ¶ÀÏ¿¡¼ 200´ëÀÇ º¥Ã÷¸¦ ÁÖ¹®Çߴµ¥ À뱂 À¯¸°ÀÚ¿¡°Ô ÀڽŵéÀÇ Â÷¸¦ ÆÇ¸ÅÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù´Â ¿øÄ¢ ¾Æ·¡ ÆÇ¸Å¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ °æÁ¦Àû Á¦À縦 °¡Çß´Ù. (24)
ºÏÇÑÀº ±â¾Æ¸¦ ¹æÁöÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾úÀ½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ¾Æ¹«·± Á¶Ä¡¸¦ ÃëÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¡°±â¾Æ´Â »ç½Ç»ó ¹æÁöÇÏ±â ¸Å¿ì ½¬¿ì¹Ç·Î ÀϾ´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ ³î¶ó¿î ÀÏ¡±(25)À̶ó´Â °ÍÀ» °í·ÁÇØ º¸¸é ºÏÇÑÀÇ ±â¾Æ´Â üÁ¦ ½ÇÆÐ·Î ÀÎÇÏ¿© ÇàÇØÁø °ÍÀ̸ç Á¶Á÷µÈ °ÍÀ¸·Î »ç·áµÈ´Ù. ±¹Á¦ »çȸ¿Í ±â±¸·ÎºÎÅÍÀÇ ÃæºÐÇÑ ¿øÁ¶¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ºÏÇÑÀº 200¸¸ ÀÌ»óÀÇ ÁֹεéÀÌ ±â¾Æ·Î ÀÎÇØ Á׾´Â °Í¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÀûÀýÇÑ Á¶Ä¡¸¦ ÃëÇÏÁö ¸øÇß´Ù.
1. ÇÔ°æºÏµµ Áö¹æÀÇ Æ¯Á¤ Áֹο¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÄ±« ÇàÀ§
ºÏÇÑÀÌ ÚãÁ¤ºÎÀû ¼ºÇâÀÌ Â£Àº ƯÁ¤ Áö¿ªÀÇ Áֹε鿡°Ô ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î ½Ä·® °ø±ÞÀ» Áö¿¬½ÃÄ×´Ù¸é ÀÌ¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼µµ Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Ã¥ÀÓÀ» ¸éÇϱ⠾î·Á¿ï °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ºÏÇÑ¿¡¼ À̸¥¹Ù ¹ÝÇõ¸íºÐÀÚ¿Í Úã±èÀϼºÁÖÀÇÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇØ¼´Â Á¤Ä¡Àû Áý´ÜÀ̶ó±â º¸´Ù Á¾±³Àû Áý´ÜÀ¸·Î °£ÁֵȴÙ. ÀÌ¹Ì ¾ð±ÞÇßµíÀÌ ºÏÇÑ Ã¼Á¦´Â °ÇÑ ½ÅÁ¤ÁÖÀÇÀû ¼º°ÝÀ» °®°í ÀÖ°í üÁ¦¿¡ ¹ÝÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀº À̸®ÇÏ¿© ±× ÀÚü·Î·Î Á¤Ä¡ÀûÀ̶ó±â º¸´Ù ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ ÀÌ´ÜÀ¸·Î °£ÁֵǴ °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
½ºÅ»¸° üÁ¦ÇÏ¿¡ ÀϾ´ø ÏÁ¼Ò·ÃÀÇ ±â¾Æ ¹üÁ˴ ƯÁ¤ Áý´ÜÀ» °Ü³ÉÇÏ¿© ÀÚÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. 2000¸¸ ÀÌ»óÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ¼Ò·Ã Á¤ºÎ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î Á×À½À» ´çÇß°í À̵éÀÇ ¾à 4ºÐÀÇ 1 °¡·®Àº ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª Áö¿ª¿¡¼¸¸ ±â¾Æ·Î ÀÎÇØ Á×¾ú´Ù. ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª ¹ÎÁ· Áý´ÜÀº Áý´Ü ³óÀå Á¦µµ¿¡ °·ÂÇÏ°Ô ¹Ý¹ßÇØ¼ ¡°¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª ¹Ý º¼¼¼ºñŰ ¹× ¹ÝÇõ¸í ŵµ¡±·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. ½ºÅ»¸°ÁÖÀÇÀÚµéÀº ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû ¸ñÀûÀ» ´Þ¼ºÇϱâ À§ÇØ ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª¿¡ ½Ä·®°ø±ÞÀ» ²÷¾ú´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
¼Ò·ÃÁ¤ºÎ´Â ±× ù¹øÂ° Á¶Ä¡·Î¼ ÀÌÇà ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÑ ¾çÀÇ ¼öÈ®·®À» ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª Áö¿ª¿¡ ȹÁ¤Çß°í, Áֹεé·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ¡°Çõ¸íÀû¡± ¸ñÀûÀ» ´Þ¼ºÇϱâ À§ÇØ ½Ä·®À» º¸³»´Â °úÁ¤¿¡¼ »ç¶÷µéÀº Á׾µµ·Ï ¹æÄ¡µÆ´Ù. ¿ª»ç°¡ ·Î¹öÆ® ÄÜÄù½ºÆ®(Robert Conquest)¿¡ µû¸£¸é ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ Â¡¹ßÀÇ ¼öÁØÀº ¡°´ÜÁö Áö³ªÄ£ ¼öÁØÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °ÅÀÇ ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÑ ¼öÁØ¡±À̾ú°í, ¡°ÀÌÇàÀÌ °Á¦µÈ´Ù¸é, ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª ³óºÎµéÀÇ ¾Æ»ç°¡ ÇÊ¿¬ÀûÀ̾ú´Ù.¡±(26) ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª´Â ´õ ÀÌ»ó ¹öÆ¿ ¼ö°¡ ¾ø¾î¼ Áý´Ü³óÀå¿¡¼ ¿Á¼ö¼ö ³¹¾ËÀ» ÁÖÀ¸·¯ ´Ù³à¾ß ÇßÀ» ¶§,¡°»çȸÁÖÀÇ ÀçºÎÀÇ ½Å¼ººÒ°¡Ä§¿¡ °üÇÑ ¹ý¡±Àº ¼Ò·ÃÀÇ ±¹°¡ Àç»êÀ» ÈÉÄ¡°Å³ª ¼ÕÇØ¸¦ ³¢Ä¡´Â »ç¶÷µéÀ» Çü»çó¹úÇß´Ù. (27) °á°úÀûÀ¸·Î »çÇüÀ̳ª ¡¿ªÇüÀÌ ºÎ°úµÇ¾ú´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
°Ô´Ù°¡ ¼Ò·ÃÁ¤ºÎ´Â ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª¿¡¼ÀÇ ÀÌ °°Àº ±â±ÙÀ» ÀνÄÇϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ±¹Á¦»çȸ°¡ ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª¿¡ ÀεµÀû Áö¿øÀ» Á¦ÀÇÇßÀ» ¶§ À̸¦ °ÅºÎÇß´Ù. ¡°¿øÁ¶ÀÇ ¿äû¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, µµ¿òÀ» Á¦ÀÇÇßÀ½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ½ºÅ»¸°Àº °á´ÜÄÚ ½Ä·®À» µµÀÔÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ» »Ó ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ±â±Ù¿¡ ½Ã´Þ¸®´Â Áö¿ª¿¡ ½Ä·®À» Áö¿øÇÏÁöµµ ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù.¡±(28) ´õ±º´Ù³ª ¼Ò·ÃÁ¤ºÎ´Â ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ½Ä·®À» ã¾Æ ´Ù¸¥ Áö¿ªÀ¸·Î ¿Å°Ü°¡´Â °Íµµ ±ÝÁö½ÃÄ×´Ù.
±×°ÍÀº ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ªÀε鿡 ´ëÇÑ ÀÎÀ§Àû ±â¾Æ À¯¹ßÀ̾ú°í, ÀÌ´Â È®¿¬ÇÑ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù. ¹Ì±¹ Á¤ºÎÀÇ º¸°í¼¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ½ºÅ»¸° Á¤ºÎÀÇ Æ¯Á¤ ¹üÀÇ´Â ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª ÀÌ¿ÜÀÇ Áö¿ª¿¡¼ ±â±ÙÀÌ ÀÖ¾úÀ» ¶§ Áï°¢ ±× ¹®Á¦¸¦ ÇØ°áÇÏ´Â Á¶Ä¡¸¦ ÃëÇß´Ù´Â Áõ°Å¸¦ ÅëÇØ ±Ô¸íµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. 1990³â ¸¶Ä§³» ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª °ø»ê´çÀº °ø½ÄÀûÀ¸·Î ¿ìÅ©¶óÀ̳ª¿¡¼ÀÇ ±â¾Æ»çÅ´ »ç½Ç»ó ÆÄ±«ÀÇ Àǵµ¸¦ °¡Áø Á¤ºÎÀÇ Áö½Ã ¾Æ·¡ Á¶Á¾µÈ °ÍÀ̾úÀ½À» ½ÃÀÎÇß´Ù. (30)
ÀÌ¿Í °°ÀÌ, ºÏÇÑ¿¡¼ 1990³â´ëÀÇ ±â¾Æ´Â ƯÁ¤ Áö¿ª¿¡¼ ÀÏ´ÜÀÇ ÁÖ¹ÎÀ» Àý¸êÇÒ Àǵµ¸¦ °¡Áø Á¤ºÎ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ¾ß±âµÇ¾úÀ½À» Á¶½É½º·´°Ô Ãß·ÐÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. NGOµéÀÇ º¸°í¿¡ µû¸£¸é ¡°Á¤ºÎ °ü¸®µéÀÌ ¼ö¸¸¸íÀÇ ½Ä·® ¿øÁ¶¸¦ ±ø±×¸® »èÅ»Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù¡±°í ÇÑ´Ù.(31) ¸¹Àº NGOµéÀÌ ±â¾ÆÀÚµéÀ» À§ÇØ Ã¥Á¤µÈ ¿øÁ¶½Ä·®À» ¹è±ÞÇÏ·Á°í ÇßÀ¸³ª ºÏÇÑ ´ç±¹ÀÌ Â÷°©°Ô ¸·¾Æ¼´Â ¹Ù¶÷¿¡ Çϸ±¾øÀÌ º¸°í¸¸ ÀÖÀ» ¼ö¹Û¿¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù.
ƯÁ¤ Áý´ÜÀ» °Ü³ÉÇß´Ù´Â Áõ°Å´Â ¼¼°è½Ä·®°èȹ(WFP)ÀÇ º¸°í¿¡µµ ³ªÅ¸³´Ù. WFP´Â Àû±ØÀûÀ¸·Î ´ë±Ô¸ð ¿øÁ¶¿¡ Âü¿©Çß°í, ½ÇÁö·Î ºÏÇÑ Àα¸ÀÇ ¾à 25%°¡ ÀÌ ÇýÅÃÀ» º¸¾Ò´Ù°í ÇÑ´Ù. WFP´Â ¡°Á¢±Ù ¾øÀÌ ½Ä·® ¾ø´Ù no access, no food¡± Á¤Ã¥À» °®°í ÀÖ¾î Áö¹æ »ç¹«¼Ò¸¦ ¼¼¿ì°í ºÏÇÑ Á̵ֹ鿡°Ô Á÷Á¢ ½Ä·®À» ¹è±ÞÇØ ¿Ô´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ºÏÇÑ Á¤ºÎ´Â ±¹°¡ ¾Èº¸¸¦ ÀÌÀ¯·Î ¸î¸î Áö¿ª¿¡ Á¢±ÙÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ Áö¿ªÀº ´ëü·Î Çٽü³À̳ª ¹Ì»çÀÏ ½ÇÇè ½Ã¼³, ¶Ç´Â Á¤Ä¡¹ü ¼ö¿ë¼Ò ÃßÁ¤Áö·Î ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖ´Ù.
ºÏÇÑÀ» ¿¬±¸Çؿ ÀϺ» °ø»ê´ç ±â°üÁö ¾ÆÄ«ÇÏ´Ù(îåÐý)ÀÇ Àü Æò¾ç ƯÆÄ¿ø Çϱâ¿Í¶ó ·á¾¾´Â ÃÖ±Ù ºÏÇÑÀÇ ±â¾Æ»çÅ¿¡ °üÇÑ Ã¥À» ¹ßÇ¥Çߴµ¥, ºÏÇÑ Á¤ºÎ´Â ÚãÁ¤ºÎ ¼ºÇâÀÌ °ÇÑ ÇÔ°æºÏµµ Áö¹æÀÇ Áֹε鿡 ´ëÇØ ÆÄ±«ÀÇ Àǵµ¸¦ °®°í ±â¾Æ¸¦ ¾ß±â½ÃÄ×´Ù°í ³»´Ùº¸°í ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ »ç½ÇµéÀ» »ìÆìº¸°Ç´ë ºÏÇÑÀº ±â¾ÆÀÇ »óȲ¿¡¼ ±èÀϼºÁÖÀǸ¦ °È½Ã۱â À§ÇÑ °Ç¹° ÃàÁ¶ µî¿¡ µ·À» ¾²´Â µ¥½Å, ¾Æ»çÀÚµéÀ» ±¸Á¦ÇÏ´Â µ¥´Â Á¶Ä¡¸¦ ÃëÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀº °ÍÀº ¸í¹éÇÑ »ç½Ç·Î º¸ÀδÙ.
C. Case II: ºÏÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò
Á¤ºÎ°ü¸®¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ÀǵµÀû »ìÀΰú °í¹®ÀÌ, ¹ÝÁ¤ºÎÀû ÁֹεéÀ» °¡Á·°ú ÇÔ²² ¼ö¿ëÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼ °Á¦³«ÅÂ, °í¹®, °Á¦³ëµ¿, °ø°³Ã³Çü µî ºñÀΰ£Àû °í¹®À¸·Î ÀÎÇØ ¾ß±âµÈ °æ¿ì Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁ˸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ³ª?
1. Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼ÒÀÇ ¹üÁËÇàÀ§(32)´Â Á¦³ë»çÀ̵åÀÇ ¸ðµç ïÒëù ¿¡ ÇØ´çµÈ´Ù
ºÏÇÑ Á¤Ä¡¹ü ¼ö¿ë¼Ò´Â °Á¦³ëµ¿ÃÌ, Áý´Ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò, °¨¿Á µîÀÇ °áÇÕµÈ Á¤Ä¡Àû ¾ï¾Ð ü°è´Ù. Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼´Â ½ÇÁö·Î Á¦³ë»çÀ̵å Çù¾à¿¡¼ ±ÔÁ¤Çϰí ÀÖ´Â ¸ðµç Á¾·ùÀÇ ¹üÇàÀÌ ÀÚÇàµÅ ¿Ô´Ù. Àýµµ³ª Å»Ã⠹̼ö¸¸À¸·Îµµ °ø°³Ã³ÇüÀ» ´çÇϱ⵵ ÇÑ´Ù. ¸»·Î Ç¥ÇöÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °í¹®, ½É°¢ÇÑ ½ÅüÀû Á¤½ÅÀû À§Çذ¡ °¡ÇØÁ® ¿Ô´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, Á¶Á÷ÀûÀÎ ±â¾Æ¿Í ½ÅüÀû ÆÄ±«¸¦ ¾ß±â½ÃŰ´Â ¿¾ÇÇÑ º¸°Ç»óȲ µîÀÌ ÁöÀûµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.(33) µû¶ó¼, Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼´Â ÁֹεéÀÌ ±â¾Æ¿Í Áúº´À¸·Î ½±°Ô Á׾´Ù. Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼´Â Èļ¼ ź»ýÀ» ±ÝÁöÇÑ´Ù´Â ¸í¸ñÀ¸·Î ³«Å°¡ °Á¦µÈ´Ù.(34) °Á¦ ¾Æµ¿ À̵¿µµ ÈçÈ÷ ÀϾÙ.
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(b) Áý´Ü ±¸¼º¿ø¿¡°Ô ½É°¢ÇÑ ½ÅüÀû Á¤½ÅÀû À§Çظ¦ ÇÑ °æ¿ì
¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ¼ö°¨µÈ ÀûÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´ø Áõ¾ðÀÚµéÀº °ÅÀÇ °í¹®ÀÌ ºÏÇÑÀÇ °¨¿Á°ú ±¸·ù ü°è¿¡ ¸¸¿¬µÅ ÀÖ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ´ÙÀ½Àº ÇÑ °æÇèÀÚÀÇ Áõ¾ðÀÌ´Ù.(36)¡°ÀÌ¿µ±¹¾¾´Â 1994³â Æò¾çÀÇ ±¹°¡º¸À§ºÎ¿Í ±¸·ùÀå¿¡¼ ²Ä¦¾øÀÌ ¹«¸À» ²Ý¾î¾É°í, ¹°°í¹®°ú ÃÑÀ¸·Î ¾ó±¼°ú Á¤°À̸¦ ¾ò¾î¸Â´Â °í¹®À» ´çÇØ û°¢¿¡ ¿µ±¸ÀûÀÎ ¼Õ»óÀ» ÀÔ¾ú°í, ¹°°ÇÀÌ µÎ °³¾¿ º¸À̸ç, Á¤°ÀÌ»À´Â 2002³â ÈĹݱⰡ µÇ±â±îÁöµµ ¾Æ¹°Áö ¾Ê°í »óó°¡ ³ªÀÖ´Ù¡±°í ¸»Çß´Ù.
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¡®¼û°ÜÁø ¼ö¿ë¼Ò The Hidden Gulag¡¯°¡ Á¦½ÃÇϰí ÀÖ´Â ¿©·¯ °ÇÀÇ Áõ¾ð¿¡ µû¸£¸é °í¹®°ú À§ÇØ·Î ÀÎÇÑ Á¦³ë»çÀÌµå ¹üÁË´Â Á¤Ä¡¹ü¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼ ÈçÈ÷ ÀÚÇàµÇ¾úÀ½À» ¾Ë ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.
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[English Version]
ISSUE 6: Whether the concept of ¡°genocide¡± is applicable to the mass starvation and atrocities that occurred in North Korea during the 1990¡¯s?
BRIEF ANSWER
The mass starvation in North Korea and atrocities in gulag constitute ¡°genocide¡± crime under the Geneva Convention on Prevention and Protection of Genocide (hereinafter ¡°Genocide Convention¡±) to which North Korea is a party.
Regarding mass starvation, creating famine falls within Article II(c), ¡°deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction,¡± and the North Korean government intentionally exacerbated the famine by reckless inaction, refusing aids and wasting resources during the famine despite the ability to prevent it.
In gulag, all kinds of acts defined in the Genocide Convention have been committed by the government officers with intent to destroy a religious-political group. Because of the unique characteristic of North Korean political system based on theocracy for Kim Il Sung unitary idea, the people who are confined in gulag can be regarded as a religious group that is protected under the Genocide Convention.
For the future, the Genocide Convention should be amended to prevent possible catastrophes. It should include political groups as protected groups, and lower the intent requirement to include ¡°reckless negligence of famine.¡± A famine crime, the cheapest and easiest mass destructive weapon, should not be regarded as a mere natural disaster when it is recklessly exacerbated by a government. A state must not be immune from liability for letting its citizen die.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Conceptual Evolution of Genocide
The word ¡°genocide¡± originated from two ancient Greek words: ¡®genos¡¯ which means ¡®a human race¡¯ and ¡®cide¡¯ which means ¡®killing.¡¯ First time this word was used in 1943 by a Jewish lawyer, Dr. Raphael Lemkin (1900-1959), in his book Axis Rule In Occupied Europe.
Even before the word ¡®genocide¡¯ became a part of legal vocabulary, Dr. Lemkin recommended to the League of Nations to adopt a new concept of a crime of killings of ethnic, religious, or social groups of people with hatred or intent to destroy and make it punishable under Public International Law. However, his suggestion was rejected, and as a result, Nazi¡¯s catastrophe could not be stopped. After the chilling experience of the Holocaust, Dr. Lemkin became assured of the need of genocide to be recognized as a crime and started lobbying and publicizing to get consensus among the international community.
Finally, in 1948, his efforts gave birth to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (hereinafter ¡°Genocide Convention¡±) through the United Nations (hereinafter ¡°UN¡±). After two years of discussion among countries, the crime of genocide was defined in Article II as:
Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
The Genocide Convention has been ratified by one hundred and thirty seven countries including North Korea .
B. The Criticism of the Genocide Convention
2. The Intent should be inferred from circumstances.
As Article II of the Genocide Convention states, ¡°intent to destroy¡± must be established to constitute a crime of genocide. The difficulty of proving the intent element makes it more difficult to deem alleged mass killings as a genocide crime. When extermination of people is carried out under systematic and organized control of a central government, executors do not have to deal with ethical issues because they think of performing executions as of a legitimate process of any government. This is the reason why the Nazis were named ¡°murderers sitting in front of desks.¡±
Accordingly, strict requirement to prove a mens rea element in order to establish genocide results in less success for prosecutions and more immunity for liable criminals. Scholars have recommended finding intent from circumstances where systematic and organized massacre occurred. If a specific group is being eliminated in a systematic and organized way, conspiracy and consensus to destroy that group may be seen though surrounding circumstances. Therefore, it should be made possible to infer intent from circumstantial evidence.
2. Political groups should be included into the protected group
Article II of the Genocide Convention limits protection to national, racial, ethnic, and religious groups. Many scholars have criticized the exclusion of political groups from the protected groups under the Convention.
In 1981, Leo Kuper pointed out that the most serious defect in the Convention is that the convention did not include political groups because genocide toward national, racial, ethnic, and religious groups is most always stirred up by political conflicts. Although this issue was brought up since the drafting of the Genocide Convention, the suggestion was not accepted because of the strong objection of the Soviet Union that had committed mass killings of political groups. Since the exclusion of political groups has been known as the biggest defect of the Genocide Convention, various experts and scholars call to amend the Convention to include political groups.
Regarding North Korea, if the Genocide Convention remains unchanged, it is foreseeable that the head of the country would effectively use this loophole to raise the sovereign immunity. Since North Korea is a unique theocratic communist country based on Kim Il Sung ideology (Youilsasang), anti-Kim Il Sung groups are easily suppressed and executed by the government. Moreover, the leader can avoid responsibility for those executions by invoking his right to perform the official functions of a head of the state for the benefit of the state under International Law. Affording such immunity to the dictator goes against justice.
C. Precedents of Genocide
The Genocide Convention is a valuable document brought from the twentieth century. The massacres during World War II called the attention of the international community to genocide crimes. Through the establishment of Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals dealing with war criminals in World War II, the issue of ¡°individual responsibility for genocide¡± was developed. Additionally, the concept of a ¡°crime against humanity¡± was coined for the first time. Those tribunals contributed in bringing consensus among the international community for the necessity of the codification of International law prohibiting genocide as a crime. All those events led to the adoption of the Genocide Convention in 1948 which entered into force in 1951.
However, the Genocide Convention did not come into function almost until the end of the Cold War in 1980s. During the Cold War, the Convention could not prevent or punish any genocide crimes such as the Cultural Revolution in China or the Killing Fields case in Cambodia.
The Genocide Convention came to life in September 1991, when International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the UN Security Council to resolve the Yugoslavia incident. On the 9th of February in 1993, the UN Experts Committee concluded that Yugoslavia ethnic killings fell into ¡°crime against humanity¡± and ¡°genocide¡± category and asked the Security Council to establish ¡°an international criminal tribunal.¡± On the 22nd, the Security Council decided to establish a court to deal with those issues, and that was the first international criminal court after Nuremberg. The former Serbian leader, Slobodan Milosevic, was prosecuted for genocide in that tribunal.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was the first court in history to give the actual conviction of the crime of genocide. In Rwanda, eighty million Tutsis were killed during a three month period in 1994. A local burgomaster, Jean-Paul Akayesu was prosecuted and found guilty of genocide.
The pending cases of the former Chilean leader Pinochet and the former Iraqi dictator Hussein have given rise to a question of whether genocide can apply without immunity to the acts committed by a leader of a state acting in the official capacity.
The North Korean issue is a combination of those precedents. Therefore, it should be dealt with more diversified and creative approaches and not be limited to the precedents.
II. THE DISTINCTIVENESS OF NORTH KOREA
A. Political System: The Deviated Communism
North Korea is distinct from other Communist countries. In 1945, the Cold War divided Korea into the North and the South. For several years, the North Korean regime operated under control of Soviet Union and China. However, after the Korean War in 1950 and the death of Stalin in 1953, North Korea started to develop a unique regime. Finally, since 1970, North Korea strengthened its unitary ideology system (Yuilsasang system) and evolved into a totally different regime from other communist countries.
Ju-Che and Yuil ideology or Kim Il Sung ideology and veneration are distinctive characteristics of the North Korean regime. Kim Il Sung, as a political leader, is worshipped as the absolute god. North Korean regime looks more like a ¡®theocracy¡¯ than anything else. The Ten Great Principles of The Unitary Ideology System (Yuilsasang Ten Commandments), written in 1974, is the de facto Constitution regulating North Korean people. Moreover, the amended Constitution is called the ¡°Kim Il Sung Constitution.¡±
North Korea has kept its clandestine and closed system even when China has opened its market to the world, Eastern European countries collapsed, and the Soviet Union was disunited. As a result, in 1990, North Korea faced serious famine, and hundreds of thousands of people defected from North Korea. At the same time, North Korea still commits human rights violations and public executions.
For the foregoing reasons, North Korea is distinguished from other typical Communist countries. Because of those distinctive traits, a multifaceted and more creative approach is needed to understand North Korean human rights issues.
B. The Unique Religious Characteristic of North Korean regime
In November 2005, the U.S. Committee on International Religious Freedom published ¡°Thank you Father, Kim Il Sung: Eyewitness Accounts of Severe Violations of Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion in North Korea.¡± It explains the distinctive theocratic characteristics of the North Korean regime by presenting concrete evidence. Well-known genocide researcher David Hawk, Professor Jae Chun Won, Handong International Law School students, and Professor Byung Lo Kim of Asin University conducted interviews of forty former North Korean citizens and found out how North Korea suppresses people in order to maintain its theocratic regime. The findings are:
North Korean Law and Practice Restricting Freedom of Religion
• North Korean authorities assert to the UN that there are no limitations on practice of religion in the country. However, Article 68 of the North Korean Constitution includes elements that are interpreted and applied as limitations on practice of religion. Arbitrary application of those constitutional provisions has lead to violations of internationally recognized standards of freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief.
• Religious freedom is also limited through constitutional provisions requiring approval for all ¡°construction of religious buildings and holding of religious ceremonies.¡± Requirements for approval of all religious ceremonies restrict freedom to manifest religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching, as expressed in Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
• Everyone who was interviewed for this study claimed that there are four mutually reinforcing reasons for the lack of religious freedom:
1. While residing in North Korea, all had been exposed to intensive and continuous anti-religious propaganda;
2. Religious activity was explicitly banned and none knew of any authorized religious activity inside North Korea;
3. All had heard about, or personally witnessed, cases of severe persecution of persons caught for engaging in religious activity;
4. All presented the understanding that Juche, the official state ideology of Kim Il Sung Revolutionary Thought, was the only officially sanctioned system of religious or ideological thought in North Korea.
Institutionalization of Juche Ideology and Veneration of the Kim Family
• North Korean propaganda continually portrays religion as ¡°opium.¡± That principle is indoctrinated into all sections of North Korean society through youth groups, political education sessions and neighborhood or workplace study groups where attendance is mandatory. Those sessions require active denunciation of religious beliefs and also include indoctrination on the principles of Juche, or ¡°Kimilsungism¡± as an exclusive religious ideology.
• All North Korean citizens are required to attend sessions at institutions known as the ¡°Kim Il Sung Revolutionary Idea Institutes,¡± or as ¡°Kim Il Sung Study Halls,¡± or as ¡°Kim Il Sung Research Rooms.¡± The institutions are described as venues for education and for veneration of the Kim family and their political philosophies. The interviewees described the experience as ¡°solemn,¡± ¡°divine,¡± and ¡°holier than the churches of South Korea.¡±
Penalties for Religious Activity
• Public executions of religious believers continue in North Korea. Several of the interviewees provided graphic and specific eye-witness testimonies of executions of individuals accused of engaging in religious activities. One of the interviewees testified that her brother was executed for involvement in such activities, but she had not seen the execution. Another interviewee had heard of executions of North Koreans involved in religious activities, and as a police official had been involved in two separate cases resulting in the arrest of eleven individuals accused of involvement with religious activities. Of the eleven cases of arrest, two of the arrested individuals were tortured to death during interrogation and the interviewee believed that the other nine had been executed.
• Ownership of a Bible or other religious materials is illegal with punishment ranging from imprisonment to execution. One other interviewee, while being imprisoned following repatriation to North Korea, met a fellow prisoner who was imprisoned because a Bible had been found in his home. Another interviewee reported that while being detained following repatriation from China he witnessed how six other detainees were sent to a prison camp for political prisoners after they confessed that they were ¡°followers of Jesus.¡± Another interviewee reported that he was personally beaten upon repatriation from China because, after repeated questioning, he admitted to having studied in a Korean-Chinese church.
• North Korean border guards take special measures to identify whether refugees repatriated from China had any contact with Korean-Chinese churches or with South Koreans.
Systematic Destruction of Religious Life in North Korea After 1945
• The Communist Party of North Korea has pursued a consistent policy to either destroy or co-opt religious practices:
1. Between 1945 and 1950 all religious leaders were either arrested or executed. A mass southern exodus of religious believers began.
2. The complete suppression of religious practices in North Korea was not achieved until the early 1960s. All religious practices that remained were classified to be the lowest strata of the songbun class system. This hereditary system categorizes all North Korean citizens into one of the 51 sub-categories of ¡°core,¡± ¡°wavering,¡± or ¡°hostile¡± groups. Those with a religious background were categorized into hostile classes 34, 35, 36, and 37. The songbun system resulted in the ¡°purge of 1958,¡± in which religious families from Pyongyang were forcibly relocated to industrial cities on the country¡¯s east coast. Many of those families were eventually sent to lifetime administrative detention within the North Korean system of forced labor camps for political prisoners.
III. THE APPLICABILITY OF GENOCIDE TO NORTH KOREA
A. The Applicability of the Genocide Convention
1. The scope of genocide
Acts of genocide are specifically defined in the Genocide Convention, and there is no controversy among scholars regarding the scope of genocide. It includes intentional killing, torture, sexual crimes, and imposition of conditions that threaten life. If one of those acts was committed against a particular group, it should be enough to establish the crime of genocide.
2. Establishment of the intent element
To constitute a crime of genocide, ¡°intent to destroy¡± must be proved. Although mens rea element is difficult to show, the intent may be successfully inferred through context or circumstances.
As stated before, requirement of a specific intent sometimes enables the perpetrators to escape liability. Since genocide is committed by governments, it is easy to conceal the true intent and to justify the actions. In 1947, when the International League for Rights of Man sued the Paraguay government for Guayaki Indian massacre, the Paraguay government could escape prosecution by stating that the killings were not intentional at all, but incidentally occurred in the process of constriction of public road and houses.
The intent element in genocide is significant because the element enables the international community to intervene and to prevent genocide even before it is committed, when the perpetrator intends to destroy a group of people. Unfortunately, there are no examples of genocide being prevented by intervention of the international community before it occurred.
3. The protected groups
While the Convention is a significant step of International Criminal Law, its practicability is often criticized because of its exclusion of political groups from the protected groups. The reasons of exclusion of political groups are ¡°(1) the instability of political groups compared to national, ethnic, racial, or religious groups into which people are generally born and which by their very nature are more enduring groups, and (2) the possibility that support for the treaty itself may be jeopardized in many states if political groups were included. As genocide is mostly committed by political regime to destroy another political group, consequently, the exclusion of political groups in the protected class significantly weaken applicability and prevention of genocide.
However, Article III and IV broadened its applicability by widening the definition of criminals and by eliminating defense of immunity. Article III criminalizes not only acts of an actual perpetrator, but also of ¡°an accomplice in any genocidal act or to conspire, attempt, or directly and publicly incite others to commit any genocidal act.¡± Moreover, sovereign immunity defense cannot be raised under Article IV. It states, ¡°Persons committing genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.¡±
B. Case 1: Mass Starvation in North Korea:
Whether the North Korean regime caused famine with intent to destroy a group of people when it recklessly ignored significant evidence that its policy would lead to serious famine; whether North Korea purposefully worsened the famine by interfering with people's abilities to cope with shortages through a myriad of rights violations underscores the former?
1. Famine falls into the definition of genocide (c)
Famine is genocide under Article II(c) which states ¡°deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part.¡± A famine is ¡°a particularly virulent form of [starvation] causing widespread death.¡± Additionally, the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court defined 'the term 'conditions of life' may include, but is not necessarily restricted to, deliberate deprivation of resources indispensable for survival, such as food.' According to The official Commentary by Red Cross to the first Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions, ¡°It should be mentioned that an action aimed at causing starvation . . . could also be a crime of genocide.¡± Therefore, if famine is intentionally organized by a government, it can be considered to be genocide.
2. The government¡¯s intent to destroy can be inferred by circumstantial evidence
If the North Korean government did not take any measures to fight famine although it could have prevented it from worsening, the intent to destroy a group of people can be inferred.
The intent of genocide requires ¡°a specific intent¡± according to The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). The Court distinguished the intent element for genocide crime from the ordinary crime of murder, stating that it requires ¡°the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy a group in whole or in part.¡± Therefore, the standard of intent requires more than mere acknowledgement of the acts.
Specific intent is found only if the perpetrator committed the actus reus purposefully aiming to achieve those particular consequences. Contrary to the general law, however, where a legal relationship lies between people, inaction by a party that leads to victims¡¯ death could call for liability of murder. Even the Article II of the North Korean Constitution states that ¡°The DPRK is a revolutionary state which has inherited brilliant traditions formed during the glorious revolutionary struggle against the imperialist aggressors, in the struggle to achieve the liberation of the homeland and the freedom and well-being of the people.¡±
As stated, the North Korean government has a legal duty to protect and to provide for its people. Therefore, inaction of the North Korea establishes intent element of famine crime which falls within genocide.
According to defector Hwang Jang-Yeop who was the former Secretary of the Labor Party, the North Korean government spent eight billion and 90 million dollars on the renovation of ¡®Kumsusan Memorial¡¯ despite the severe famine which seized the whole country. With that money, the government could have purchased six-million-tons of corn. He pointed out that if Kim Jong-Il spent the money on food for people, he could have prevented more than one million civilians from dying from hunger. Furthermore, when Kim Jong Il attempted to buy two hundreds of Mercedes-Benz automobiles from Germany during the famine, the German corporation refused to sell the cars because they did not want to sell their cars to a human rights violator and did so as an economic sanction.
North Korea could have prevented the famine but took no action. Considering that ¡°famine is, in fact, so easy [to eradicate and] to prevent that it is amazing that they are allowed to occur at all,¡± the famine in North Korea can be deemed to be committed and organized by the fault of the regime. Despite the plentiful aid from the international community and organizations, North Korea failed to deal with the famine which resulted in more than two million deaths in hunger.
3. The government targeted to destroy a specific group of people in Hamkyungbukdo known as revolutionists who could be classified as religious group under North Korean regime
If North Korea intentionally suspended food supply to particular regions of revolutionists, the government would be liable for genocide. In North Korea, revolutionists and anti-Kim Il Sung are regarded religious groups rather than political groups. As stated before, North Korea regime has strong theocratic characteristics, and therefore, the opposition to the regime is not merely political in nature, but rather a heresy.
Under the Stalin¡¯s regime famine was intentionally aimed at particular regions. More than twenty million people were intentionally killed by the government, and a quarter of the people died due to famine in the Ukraine region only. Ukrainian nation group was known as strong objectors against the collective farm system, and they were classified as ¡°Ukrainian anti-Bolshevik and counterrevolutionary attitudes.¡± Stalinists intentionally cut food supply to Ukraine to achieve political objectives.
The Soviet government, as the first step, imposed unbearable grain quotas on Ukraine, then, let the people die while it exported grain to further its ¡°revolutionary¡± objectives. As historian Robert Conquest observes, these requisition levels ¡°were not merely excessive, but quite impossible¡± and, ¡°if enforced, could only lead to starvation of the Ukrainian peasantry.¡± When Ukrainians could not stand it any more and tried to get an ear of corns from collective farms, if caught, they were prosecuted under the ¡°Law on the Inviolability of Socialist Property¡± that criminalized anyone who attempted to steal or damage any property of the Soviet Union. Consequently, the death penalty or harsh prison terms were imposed.
Moreover, although the government knew of famine in Ukraine, when the international community offered humanitarian aid to Ukrainians, the Soviet Union refused the offer. ¡°In spite of pleas for assistance, and in spite of offers of help, Stalin allowed absolutely no food imports or food aid into the affected region.¡± Furthermore, the government prevented the free movement of Ukrainians to migrant to other regions for food.
It was an organized famine against Ukrainians; therefore, it is apparent genocide. According to a report by the US government, the specific intent of Stalin¡¯s government was supported by the evidence that when there was famine in regions other than Ukraine, the government adopted quick measure to eradicate the famine. Finally, in 1990, the Ukrainian community party officially admitted that the famine in Ukraine was in fact manipulated under instruction of the government with intent to destroy.
Likewise, in North Korea, it can be carefully inferred that famine in 1990s was created by the government with intent to exterminate a group of people in a particular region. According to the testimonies of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 'the authorities are deliberately depriving hundreds of thousands of truly needy Koreans of assistance.' Although NGOs attempted to distribute aid earmarked for famine victims, they had to watch helplessly as the government callously interfered.
Evidence of targeting a group is also found in a report by the World Food Program (WFP). WFP actively participated in aiding North Korea on a large scale, and indeed twenty-five-percent of North Koreans benefited from their help. Since WFP has a policy of ¡°no access, no food,¡± it established its local office and directly distributed food to North Koreans. The North Korean government, however, does not allow access to several regions because of national security reasons. Those areas are known as nuclear energy facilities, missile experimental facilities, and hidden gulags.
Japanese journalist, Hiragawa who was correspondent in North Korea, published his observations regarding famine in North Korea. He believed that North Korean government deliberately created the famine with intent to destroy a specific group of people in Hamkyungbukdo because people in Hankyungbukdo were known as revolutionists.
Examining the facts, it is clear that North Korea did not take any measures to help its people, instead spent money on strengthening its religion, Kim-Il-Sung-ism.
C. Case II: The hidden gulag in North Korea:
Whether the intentional killings and tortures committed by the government officials constitute genocide where the government imprisoned families of people in gulag and inflicted inhumane tortures such as involuntary abortion, tortures, enforced labor, and public executions?
1. The acts committed in gulags fall into all definitions of genocide
A gulag in North Korea is a system of repression of forced-labor colonies, camps, and prisons.
In the gulags, all kinds of acts defined in the Genocide Convention have been committed. People are publicly executed when they are caught stealing or attempting to escape. Serious bodily and mental harm is inflicted through indescribable tortures. Also, organized famine and absence of sanitation result in physical destruction . Therefore, it is common that people in gulags easily die of hunger or diseases. Forced abortion is imposed on women by reason of cleaning the generation. Forced transfer of children is common.
(a) Killings of members of the group.
Anyone who attempts to escape or violates the rules of the gulags is publicly executed in front of other prisoners. Lee, Young-Kuk who was imprisoned for four years testified that he saw public execution of a person who had been caught escaping. Kim, Tae-Jin who was imprisoned in Yo-Duk gulag for five years also testified that he was forced to watch five people shot to death for stealing food. Persons who try to escape or violate other major rules are ¡°publicly executed by hanging or firing squad in front of the assembled prisoners of that section of the camp.¡±
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group
Almost all of the former-prisoners testified that the practice of torture permeates the North Korean detention system. These are testimonies from a former prisoner and a guard:
¡°LEE Young-Kuk testified that he was subjected to motionless-kneeling and water torture and facial and shin beatings with rifle butts at the Kuk-ga-bo-wi-bu interrogation/detention facility in Pyongyang in 1994, leaving permanent damage in one ear, double vision in one eye, and his shins still bruised and discolored as of late 2002 (Italics emphasized).
AHN Myong Chol, a former guard, reported that all three of the Kwan-li-so at which he worked had isolated detention facilities in which many prisoners died form mistreatment, and that at Kwan-li-so No.22 there were so many deaths by beatings from guards that the guards were told to be less violent (Italics emphasized).¡±
Numerous testimonies in ¡®The Hidden Gulag¡¯ reveal that the crime of genocide by torture and infliction of harm has been commonly practiced in gulags.
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part
The conditions of gulags that are ¡°the combination of below-subsistence food rations and extremely hard labor¡± result in a large number of deaths. In ¡°The Hidden Gulag¡± it states, ¡°Former prisoners and former prison guards report that upon arrival, they were struck by the shortness, skinniness, premature aging, hunchbacks, and physical deformities of so many of the prisoner¡¦[p]risoners are provided only enough food to be kept perpetually on the verge of starvation.¡± ¡°The Hidden Gulag¡± emphasized that below-subsistence food conditions were deliberately inflicted by the North Korean government because they existed even decades before the famine in 1990s.
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group
In gulags, prisoners are not allowed to have children. Several reports by the former prisoners show that sex between prisoners is not allowed, and there are ¡°killings of pregnant women who were raped or coerced into sex by prison guards.¡± ¡°The Hidden Gulag¡± focused on forced abortions and ethnic infanticide directed against ¡°women forcibly repatriated from China, because of the ethnic and policy components of those atrocities.¡± These inhumane measures were ¡°based on the possibility that the Korean women had been impregnated by Han Chinese men.¡± All of the eight former detainees testified that they ¡°witnessed or firsthand knowledge of forced abortions and ethnic infanticide¡± in the gulags.
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group
Apparently, there is no freedom of movement. Children are also detained in gulags because of guilt-by-association principle. It is reasonably inferred that the imprisoned children were involuntarily transferred according to the order of the authorities.
2. The government has a specific intent to destroy the group of people who are against the regime, and the intent is established by killing of generations, ¡°Yeonjwaje¡± and forced abortion
The government¡¯s intent to destroy the group of people is clear enough. When the government imprisons people, it detains not only the person, but also three generations of that person¡¯s family. That is called ¡°Yeonjwaje – guilt by association – whereby the mother and father, sisters and brothers, children and sometimes grandchildren of the offending political prisoner are imprisoned in a three-generation practice.¡± The purpose of ¡°Yeonjwaje¡± is found in a 1972 statement by Kim Il Sung, ¡°Factionalists or enemies of class, whoever they are, their seed must be eliminated through three generations.¡±
Also, involuntary abortion occurs in gulag with intent to exterminate the pregnant woman¡¯s generation. According to Kang, Chul-Hwan¡¯s testimony, abortions are forced because it is believed that a delivery of the child will result in doubling ¡°counter-revolutionary elements.¡±
3. A religious group was targeted.
As stated before, North Korea is a religious regime. People who do not fit into Kim Il Sung¡¯s Ideology are sent to prisons. The people who are sent to prisons should be classified as political prisoners, but because of the theocratic characteristic of the North Korean regime, those political prisoners can be classified as a religious group.
V. CONCLUSION
The North Korean government caused the famine in North Korea and human rights violations in the gulags. Granting immunity for those crimes goes against justice in the light of international law. The famine in North Korea killed fifteen percent of its people. That should not be ignored. That crime must be punished as a crime of genocide under the International Criminal Law. However, the Genocide Convention has serious limitations. The Convention gives leeway to massacres that occurred in the context of political suppression.
We suggest that consensus in international community is needed to prevent and punish recklessly committed famine crimes in the International Criminal Law. When there is a specific intent and reckless inaction, the perpetrator must be prosecuted under the International Criminal Law. By dealing with North Korean issues, we should acknowledge defects of such conventions and develop an international mechanism for bringing justice where injustice remains.